A     S  H  O  R~T 

HISTORY  OP  EDUCATION 

BEING  A  REPRINT  OF  THE  ARTICLE  BY  OSCAR  BROWNING  ON 


EDUCATION 


IN    THE    NINTH    EDITION    OF   THE 


ENCYLOP^EDIA   BRITANNICA 


Edited,  with  an  Introduction,  Notes  and  References,  and  some  account  of 
Comenius  and  his  Writings, 


BY 

W  .    H  .    H  A  Y<NE?v    L,  L  .  D  . 

CHANCELLOR  OF   THE   UNIVERSITY   <>F    NASHVILLE.       AUTHOR   OF    *"  CHAPTERS 

ON   SCHOOL  SUPERVISION"  ".    "  CONTRIIU' 1'IONS   TO   THE    SCIENCE 

OF    EDUCATION  ",    ETC. 


SYRACUSE,    N.   Y. 

C.  W.    BARDEEN,  PUBLISHER 

1897 


Copyright,  1881,  by  W.  II.  PAYNE;  1897.  by  C.  W.  BARDEEX 


JLAY3 


PUBLISHER'S    NOTE 


New  plates  being  required  for  this  little  *book,  it 
has  been  thought  best  with  the  approval  of  the  au- 
thor to  add  illustrations,  and  accordingly  thirty-six 
portraits  and  eleven  other  pictures  have  been  in- 
serted, with  a  few  additional  notes,  mostly  biblio- 
graphical. 

SYRACUSE,  April  16,   1897. 


A     S  HO  R~T 

HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


54 


INTRODUCTION 


In  this  country  the  purpose  of  normal  instruction 
seems  to  be  to  prepare  young  men  and  women  in  the 
shortest  and  most  direct  way  for  doing  school-room 
work.  The  equipment  needed  for  this  work  is  a 
knowledge  of  subjects  and  an  empirical  knowledge 
of  methods;  and  so  the  normal  schools  furnish 
sound  academic  training,  and  pupils  are  taught 
methods  of  instruction  by  actual  practice  in  experi- 
mental schools.  In  all  this,  the  mechanical,  or  em- 
pirical, element  seems  to  be  held  uppermost  in 
thought.  Pupils  must  be  trained  for  practical  ends  ; 
they  must,  so  to  speak,  be  converted  into  instru- 
ments for  doing  prescribed  work  by  prescribed 
methods;  and  anything  that  promises  to  detract  from 
their  value  as  machines,  must  be  studiously  avoided. 
The  artisan  thus  appears  to  be  the  ideal  product  of 
the  normal  school. 

I  do  not  presume  to  say  that  this  conception  of 
the  purpose  of  normal  instruction  is  wrong.  I  claim 
only  the  right  to  think  and  to  say  that  I  hold  an  es- 
sentially different  view,  and  that  I  am  attempting  to 
give  professional  instruction  to  teachers  on  a  totally 
different  hypothesis.  I  believe  that  the  great  bar  to 
educational  progress  is  the  mechanical  teaching  that 
is  so  prevalent,  and  that  is  so  fostered  and  encour- 

(ix) 


X  SHORT    HISTORY    OF    EDUCATION 

\ 

aged  by  normal  schools.  I  believe  that  an  intelli- 
gent scholar,  furnished  with  a  few  clearly  defined 
principles,  and  free  to  throw  his  own  personality 
into  his  methods,  is  far  more  likely  to  grow  into  an 
accomplished  teacher  than  one  who  goes  to  his  work 
with  the  conviction  that  he  must  follow  prescribed 
patterns,  and  has  not  that  versatility  that  comes  from 
an  extension  of  his  intellectual  horizon.  The  value 
of  a  teacher  depends  upon  his  worth  as  a  man,  rather 
than  upon  his  value  as  an  instrument.  Man  becomes 
an  instrument  only  by  losing  worth  as  a  man.  In 
normal  instruction  there  is  need  of  greater  faith  in 
the  potency  of  ideas,  and  less  faith  in  the  value  of 
drill,  imitation,  and  routine. 

It  is  possible  that  in  some  grades  of  school  work  a 
purely  mechanical  teaching  is  best;  that  he  is  the 
best  teacher  who  is  most  of  an  artisan, — with  whom 
teaching  is  most  of  a  handicraft.  But  I  do  not  be- 
lieve this.  The  rules  that  are  best  for  working  on 
wood  and  stone  are  not  the  best  when  applied  to 
mind  and  character.  Undoubtedly,  there  is  a  me- 
chanical element  in  the  teaching  art ;  but  this  is  sub- 
ordinate to  that  other  element  that  wholly  escapes 
mechanical  measurements,  because  it  has  to  do  with 
the  manifestations  of  free  spirit.  In  other  words,  I 
am  persuaded  that  a  teacher  is  poor  to  the  degree  in 
which  he  is  an  artisan,  and  good  to  the  degree  in 
which  he  is  an  artist ;  and  that  nothing  is  so  much 
needed  by  teachers  of  every  class  as  an  infusion  of 
that  freedom  and  versatility  that  are  possible  only 
through  an  extension  of  the  mental  vision  by  means 
of  a  more  liberal  culture. 


INTRODUCTION  XI 

While  I  may  be  wrong  in  the  general  hypothesis, 
1  feel  that  I  am  right  in  the  following  particulars: 
There  must  be  some  teachers  who  are  more  than 
mere  instruments,  more  than  operatives,  more  than 
artisans  ;  there  must  be  some  who  can  see  processes 
.as  they  are  related  to  law, — who,  while  obedient  to 
law,  can  throw  their  own  personality  into  their 
methods  and  can  make  such  adaptations  of  them  as 
varying  circumstances  may  demand.  If  most  teach- 
ers are  doomed  to  be  the  slaves  of  routine,  there 
must  be  some  who  have  the  ability  to  create  and  to 
control.  In  a  word,  along  with  the  great  multitude 
of  mere  teachers,  there  must  be  a  growing  body  of 
educators.  I  cannot  but  think  that  in  every  normal 
school  there  are  men  and  women  who  would  love  to 
walk  upon  these  heights,  to  breathe  this  freer  air, 
.and  who  would  thus  see  in  teaching  a  fair  field  for 
the  exercise  of  their  best  gifts.  The  attention  of 
such  should  be  drawn  somewhat  away  from  the 
merely  mechanical  aspects  of  teaching,  and  fixed  on 
those  professional  studies  that  will  broaden  the 
teacher's  vision  and  give  him  the  consciousness  of 
some  degree  of  creative  power.  The  studies  I  mean 
.are  EDUCATIONAL  SCIENCE  and  EDUCATIONAL  HIS- 
TORY. 

It  has  been  said  that  a  teacher  who  is  wholly  ignor- 
.ant  of  the  history  of  education  may  still  do  excellent 
work  in  the  school-room.  This  does  not  admit  of 
the  least  doubt.  It  is  also  true  that  men  attain 
long  lives  in  complete  ignorance  of  the  laws  of 
digestion,  and  that  they  become  voters  and  office- 
•holders  while  knowing  nothing  of  their  country's 


Xll  SHORT    HISTORY    OF    EDUCATION 

history;  but  it  does  not  follow  that  physiology  and 
history  are  needless  studies.  A  fair  knowledge  of 
the  history  of  one's  own  country  is  now  thought  to 
be  an  essential  element  in  good  citizenship;  and  I 
see  no  reason  why  a  fair  knowledge  of  the  history  of 
educational  systems  and  doctrines  should  not  form- 
a  very  desirable  element  in  a  teacher's  education. 
He  may  teach  well  without  this  knowledge;  but  hav- 
ing it,  he  will  feel  an  inspiring  sense  of  the  nobility 
of  his  calling,  will  teach  more  intelligently,  and  will 
give  a  richer  quality  to  his  work.  Intelligent  patri- 
otism is  evoked  by  a  vivid  knowledge  of  Plymouth* 
Rock,  of  the  American  Revolution,  and  of  Mountf 
Vernon ;  and  no  teacher  can  think  meanly  of  his- 
calling  who  has  learned  to  trace  his  professional  an- 
cestry through  Plato,  Comenius,  Locke,  Cousin,  and 
Arnold. 

As  exhibiting  the  general  grounds  on  which  the 
history  of  education  should  be  made  a  topic  of  in- 
struction for  at  least  a  part  of  the  teaching  class,  I> 
repeat  some  observations  made  on  another  occasion. 

"  General  history  is  a  liberal  study  in  the  sense- 
that  it  greatly  extends  the  horizon  of  our  sympa- 
thies, widens  our  field  of  intellectual  vision,  and 
thus  makes  us  cosmopolitan  and  catholic, —  true  citi- 
zens of  the  world.  Historical  study  has  also  a  very 
great  practical  value.  It  gives  us  the  benefit  of  col- 
lective human  experience  as  exhibited  under  every 
variety  of  circumstances  and  conditions.  It  relates 
the  origin,  succession,  and  termination  of  all  the 
marked  events  in  human  progress.  It  thus  saves  us 
from  repeating  experiments  already  tried,  forewarns- 


INTRODUCTION  Xlll 

us  against  dangers  that  ever  beset  the  path  of  the 
inexperienced,  and  assures  to  each  generation  the 
results  of  the  real  additions  made  to  the  stock  of 
human  progress. 

"  For  the  most  part,  the  events  recorded  in  history 
are  the  results  of  the  unpremeditated  actions  of  man 
Humanity  at  large  seems  to  be  impelled  onward  by 
an  irresistible  but  unconscious  impulse,  just  as  a 
glacier  moves  over  mountains  and  through  valleys, 
with  a  silent  yet  irresistible  might.  This  life  of 
mere  impulse  is  the  lower  life  of  nations  and  peoples, 
just  as  the  period  of  impulse  marks  the  lower  and 
imperfect  life  of  the  individual.  But  in  nations  as 
well  as  in  individuals,  the  period  of  reflection  at  last 
-comes,  and  this  is  the  period  when  histories  begin  to 
be  written  and  read.  The  effect  of  historical  study 
is  thus  to  check  mere  impulse,  and  to  convert  uncon- 
scious progress  into  self-conscious  and  reflective 
^efforts  towards  determinate  ends. 

"  In  all  nations  that  have  passed  beyond  the  period 
of  mere  barbarism,  there  has  been  some  degree  of  con- 
scious and  intended  effort  after  progress,  some  pre- 
paration for  the  duties  of  citizenship,  some  attempt 
to  make  the  future  better  than  the  past  has  been. 
This  conscious  effort  to  place  each  generation  on  a 
vantage-ground,  through  some  deliberate  training  or 
preparation,  is,  in  its  widest  sense,  education. 

"  Now  if  history  in  general,  as  it  records  the  uncon- 
scious phases  of  human  progress,  is  a  study  of  supreme 
value,  that  part  of  general  history  which  records  the 
reflective  efforts  of  men  to  rise  superior  to  their 
actual  present,  must  teach  lessons  of  even  higher 
value.  This  is  emphatically  an  educating  age.  The 


XIV  SHORT    HISTORY    OF    EDUCATION 

minds  of  the  wisest  and  the  best  are  intent  on  devis- 
ing means  whereby  progress  may  be  hastened  through 
the  resources  of  human  art.  In  the  world  of  educa- 
tional thought,  all  is  ferment  and  discussion.  We 
are  passing  beyond  the  period  of  reckless  experiment 
and  are  seeking  anchorage  in  doctrines  deduced  from 
the  permanent  principles  of  human  nature.  Educa- 
tional Science  is  giving  us  a  glimmer  of  light  ahead, 
and  we  do  well  to  shape  our  course  by  it.  What 
ought  to  be  should  indeed  be  our  pole-star;  but  until 
this  has  been  defined  with  more  precision,  we  should 
also  shape  our  course  by  looking  back  on  what  has 
been.  We  should  think  of  ourselves  as  moving 
through  the  darkness  or  over  an  unknown  region, 
with  a  light  before  us  and  a  light  behind  us.  Our 
two  inquiries  should  be.  Whence  have  we  come  ? 
Whither  are  we  going?  Historical  progress  is  tor- 
tuous, but  its  general  direction  is  right.  The  history 
of  what  has  been  must  therefore  contain  some 
elements  of  truth.  The  past  at  least  foreshadows  the 
future,  and  we  may  infer  the  direction  of  progress 
by  comparing  what  has  been  with  what  is.  In  educa- 
tion, therefore,  we  need  to  know  the  past,  both  as  a 
means'of  taking  stock  of  progress,  and  also  of  fore- 
shadowing the  future.  We  should  give  a  large  place 
to  the  ideal  elements  in  our  courses  of  normal  in- 
struction';  but  we  should  also  make  a  large  use  of 
the  results  of  experience.  All  true  progress  is  a 
transition.  The  past  has  insensibly  led  up  to  the 
present;  let  the  present  merge  into  the  future.  Let 
history  foreshadow  philosophy;  and  let  philosophy 
introduce  its  corrections  and  ameliorations  into  the 
lessons  of  historv." 


INTRODUCTION  XV 

An  obstacle  to  the  study  of  the  history  of  educa- 
tion in  this  country,  has  been  the  lack  of  suitable 
books  on  this  subject.  In  English  we  have  only 
Schmidt's  History  of  Education,  and  the  History  and 
Progress  of  Education  by  Philobiblius  (L.  P.  Brock- 
ett).  At  best,  these  are  mere  outlines,  and  consid- 
ered as  outlines,  they  are  very  imperfect  and  unsatis- 
factory. In  seeking  |or  a  text  that  I  might  make  the 
basis  of  a  short  course  of  instruction  for  students  in 
this  university,  I  have  found  the  article  EDUCATION 
in  the  ninth  edition  of  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica 
admirably  adapted  to  my  purpose ;  and  I  have  thought 
that  a  reprint  of  it,  under  the  title  of  A  Short  History  of 
Education  might  be  acceptable  to  the  general  reader, 
to  intelligent  and  progressive  teachers,  and  to  the 
members  of  the  profession  who  are  engaged  in  the 
education  of  teachers.  To  make  this  outline  more 
useful  to  teachers  and  students,  I  have  added  a  select 
list  of  educational  works,  and  have  arranged  a  list  of 
more  important  topics  suggested  by  this  outline, 
with  references  to  these  authorities.  By  this  means 
the  course  of  study  may  be  extended  almost  at  will. 
It  may  J^€  embrac^n  merely  this  admirable  outline, 
and  thus  occupy  but  a  few  days,  or  it  may  be  pursued 
on  the  seminary  plan,  and  thus  indefinitely  extended. 
I  have  considerably  multiplied  my  notes  and  refer- 
ences on  Comenius,  in  the  hope  of  exciting  an  inter- 
est in  the  study  of  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  educa- 
tional reformers. 

W.  H.  PAYNE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  MICHIGAN,  January  22,  1881. 


A  Short  History  of  Education 


This  article  is  mainly  concerned  with  the  history 
of  educational  theories  in  the  chief  crises  of  their 
development.  It  has  not  been  the  object  of  the 
writer  to  give  a  history  of  the  practical  working  of 
these  theories,  and  still  less  to  sketch  the  outlines 
of  the  science  of  teaching,  which  may  be  more  con- 
veniently dealt  with  under  another  head. 

The  earliest  education  is  that  of  the  family.  The 
child  must  be  trained  not  to  interfere  with  its  par- 
ents' convenience,  and  to  acquire  those  little  arts 
which  will  help  in  maintaining  the  economy  of  the 
household.  It  was  long  before  any  attempt  was 
made  to  improve  generations  as  they  succeeded  each 
other. 

The  earliest  schools  were  those  of  the  priests.  As 
soon  as  an  educated  priesthood  had  taken  the  place 
of  the  diviners  and  jugglers  who  abused  the  credulity 
of  the  earliest  races,  schools  of  the  prophets  became 
a  necessity.  The  training  required  for  ceremonials, 
the  common  life  apart  from  the  family,  the  accomp- 
lishments of  reading  and  singing,  afforded  a  nucleus 
for  the  organization  of  culture  and  an  opportunity 
for  the  efforts  of  a  philosopher  in  advance  of  his  age. 
Convenience  and  gratitude  confirmed  the  monopoly 
of  the  clergy. 

The  schools  of  Judea  and  Egypt  were  ecclesiasti- 


l8  ,          .    (.  (          ,     t  .ANCIENT    EDUCATION 

cal.  The  Jews  had  but  little  effect  on  the  progress 
of  science,  but  our  obligations  to  the  priests  of  the 
Nile  valley  are  great  indeed.  Much  of  their  learn- 
ing is  obscure  to  us,  but  we  have  reason  to  conclude 
that  there  is  no  branch  of  science  in  which  they  did 
not  progress  at  least  so  far  as  observation  and  care- 
ful registration  of  facts  could  carry  them.  They 
were  a  source  of  enlightenment  to  surrounding 
nations.  Not  only  the  great  lawgiver  of  the  Jews, 
but  those  who  were  most  active  in  stimulating  the 
nascent  energies  of  Hellas  were  careful  to  train 
themselves  in  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians. 

Greece,  in  giving  an  undying  name  to  the  liter- 
ature   of    Alexander,   was 
only    repaying     the    debt 
which    she    had    incurred 
centuries    before.     Educa- 
\  tion    became     secular     in 
I  countries  where  the  priest- 
M   hood    did    not   exist   as   a 
m     separate  body.     At   Rome, 
until  Greece  took  her  con- 
queror captive,  a  child  was 
ARISTOTLE,  384-332,  B.  c.        trained   for   the   duties    of 
life  in  the  forum  and  the  senate  house. 

The  Greeks  were  the  first  to  develop  a  science  of 
education  distinct  from  ecclesiastical  training. 
They  divided  their  subjects  of  study  into  music  and 
gymnastics,  the  one  comprising  all  mental,  the  other 
all  physical  training.  Music  was  at  first  little  more 
than  the  study  of  the  art  of  expression. 


JUDEA,  EGYPT,  GREECE  19 

But  the  range  of  intellectual  education  which  had 
been  developed  by  distin- 
guished musical  teachers 
was  further  widened  by  the 
Sophists,  until  it  received 
a  new  stimulus  and  direc- 
tion from  the  work  of  Soc- 
rates. Who  can  forget  the 
picture  left  us  by  Plato  of 
the  Athenian  palaestra,  in 

SOCRATES,  470-399,  B.  c.  which  Socrates  was  sure  to 
find  his  most  ready  listeners  and  his  most  ardent 
disciples  ?  In  the  intervals  of  running,  wrestling, 
or  the  bath,  the  young  Phaedrus  or  Theaetetus  dis- 
coursed with  the  philosophers  who  had  come  to  watch 
them  on  the  good,  the  beautiful,  and  the  true.  The 
lowest  efforts  of  their  teachers  were  to  fit  them  to 
maintain  any  view  they  might  adopt  with  acuteness, 
elegance,  readiness,  and  good  taste.  Their  highest 
efforts  were  to  stimulate  a  craving  for  the  knowledge 
of  the  unknowable,  to  rouse  a  dissatisfaction  with 
received  opinions,  and  to  excite  a  curiosity  which 
grew  stronger  with  the  revelation  of  each  successive 
mystery. 

Plato  is  the  author  of  the  first  systematic  treatise 
on  education.  He  deals  with  the  subject  in  his  earlier 
dialogues,  he  enters  into  it  with  great  fulness  of 
detail  in  the  Republic,  and  it  occupies  an  important 
position  in  the  Laws.  The  views  thus  expressed  dif- 
fer considerably  in  particulars,  -and  it  is  therefore 
difficult  to  give  concisely  the  precepts  drawn  up  by 
him  for  our  obedience.  But  the  same  spirit  under 


20 


ANCIENT    EDUCATION 


lies  his  whole  teaching.  He  never  forgets  that  the 
beautiful  is  undistinguishable  from  the  true,  and  that 
the  mind  is  best  fitted  to  solve  difficult  problems 
which  has  been  trained  by  the  enthusiastic  contem- 
plation of  art. 

Plato  proposes  to  intrust  education  to  the  state. 
He  lays  great  stress  on  the 
influence  of  race  and  blood. 
Strong  and  worthy  children 
are  likely  to  spring  from 
strong  and  worthy  parents. 
Music  and  gymnastics  are 
to  develop  the  emotions  of 
young  men  during  their 
earliest  years — the  one  to 
strengthen  their  character 
PLATO,  429-847,  B.  c.  for  the  contest  of  life,  the 

other  to  excite  in  them  varying  feelings  of  resent- 
ment or  tenderness.  Reverence,  the  ornament  of 
youth,  is  to  be  called  forth  by  well-chosen  fictions; 
a  long  and  rigid  training  in  science  is  to  precede  dis- 
cussion on  more  important  subjects.  At  length  the 
goal  is  reached,  and  the  ripest  wisdom  is  ready  to  be 
applied  to  the  most  important  practice. 

The  great  work  of  Quintilian,  although  mainly  a 
treatise  on  oratory,  also  contains  incidentally  a  com- 
plete sketch  of  a  theoretical  education.  His  object 
is  to  show  us  how  to  form  the  man  of  practice.  But 
what  a  high  conception  of  practice  is  his !  He  wrote 
for  a  race  of  rulers.  He  inculcates  much  which  has 
been  attributed  to  the  wisdom  of  a  later  age.  He 
urges  the  importance  of  studying  individual  dispo- 


ROME  21 

sitions,  and  of  tenderness  in  discipline  and  punish- 
ment. 

The  Romans  understood  no  systematic  training 
except  in  oratory.  In  their  eyes  every  citizen  was  a 
born  commander,  and  they  knew  of  no  science  of 
government  and  political  economy.  Cicero  speaks 
slightingly  even  of  jurisprudence.  Any  one,  he  says, 
can  make  himself  a  jurisconsult  in  a  week,  but  an 
orator  is  the  production  of  a  lifetime.  No  statement 
can  be  less  true  than  that  a  perfect  orator  is  a  perfect, 
man.  But  wisdom  and  philanthrophy  broke  even 
through  that  barrier,  and  the  training  which  Quin- 
tilian  expounds  to  us  as  intended  only  for  the  public 
speaker  would,  in  the  language  of  Milton,  fit  a  man 
to  perform  justly,  wisely,  and  magnanimously  all  the 
offices,  both  public  and  private,  of  peace  and  war. 

Such  are  the  ideas  which  the  old  world  has  left  us. 
On  one  side  man,  beautiful,  active,  clever,  receptive, 
emotional,  quick  to  feel,  to  show  his  feeling,  to  ar- 
gue, to  refine;  greedy  of  the  pleasures  of  the  world, 
perhaps  a  little  neglectful  of  its  duties,  fearing  re- 
straint as  an  unjust  stinting  of  the  bounty  of  nature, 
inquiring  eagerly  into  every  secret,  strongly  attached 
to  the  things  of  this  life,  but  elevated  by  an  unabated 
striving  after  the  highest  ideal ;  setting  no  value  but 
upon  faultless  abstractions,  and  seeing  reality  only 
in  heaven,  on  earth  mere  shadows,  phantoms,  and 
copies  of  the  unseen.  On  the  other  side,  man,  prac- 
tical, energetic,  eloquent,  tinged  but  not  imbued  with 
philosophy,  trained  to  spare  neither  himself  nor 
others,  reading  and  thinking  only  with  an  apology  ; 
best  engaged  in  defending  a  political  principle,  in 


22  CHRISTIAN    EDUCATION       - 

maintaining  with  gravity  and  solemnity  the  conser- 
vation of  ancient  freedom,  in  leading  armies  through 
unexplored  deserts,  establishing  roads,  fortresses, 
settlements,  the  results  of  conquest,  or  in  ordering 
and  superintending  the  slow,  certain,  and  utter  anni- 
hilation of  some  enemy  of  Rome.  Has  the  modern 
world  ever  surpassed  their  type?  Can  we  in  the 
present  day  produce  anything  by  education  except 
by  combining,  blending,  and  modifying  the  self- 
culture  of  the  Greek  or  the  self-sacrifice  of  the 
Roman  ? 

The  literary  education  of  the  earliest  generation 
of  Christians  was  obtained  in  the  pagan  schools,  in 
those  great  imperial  academies  which  existed  even 
down  to  the  fifth  century,  which  flourished  in  Europe, 
Asia,  and  Africa,  and  attained  perhaps  their  highest 
development  and  efficiency  in  Gaul. 

The  first  attempt  to  provide  a  special  education  for 
Christians  was  made  at  Alexandria,  and  is  illustrated 
by  the  names  of  Clement  and  Origen.  The  later 
Latin  fathers  took  a  bolder  stand,  and  rejected  the 
suspicious  aid  of  heathenism.  Tertullian,  Cyprian, 
and  Jerome  wished  the  antagonism  between  Christi- 
anity and  Paganism  to  be  recognized  from  the  earli- 
est years,  and  even  Augustine  condemned  with 
harshness  the  culture  to  which  he  owed  so  much  of 
his  influence. 

The  education  of  the  Middle  Ages  was  either  that 
of  the  cloister  or  the  castle.  They  stood  in  sharp 
contrast  to  each  other.  The  object  of  the  one  was 
to  form  the  young  monk,  of  the  other  the  young 
knight.  We  should  indeed  be  ungrateful  if  we  for- 


THE    MIDDLE    AGES  23 

got  the  services  of  those  illustrious  monasteries, 
Monte  Cassino,  Fulda,  or  Tours,  which  kept  alive 
the  torch  of  learning  throughout  the  dark  ages,  but 
it  would  be  equally  mistaken  to  attach  an  exagger- 
ated importance  to  the  teachings  which  they  pro- 
vided. Long  hours  were  spent  in  the  duties  of  the 
church  and  in  learning  to  take  a  part  in  elaborate 
and  useless  ceremonies.  A  most  important  part  of 
the  monastery  was  the  writing-room,  where  missals, 
psalters,  and  breviaries  were  copied  and  illuminated, 
and  too  often  a  masterpiece  of  classic  literature  was 
effaced  to  make  room  for  a  treatise  of  one  of  the 
fathers  or  the  sermon  of  an  abbot. 

The  discipline  was  hard  ;  the  rod  ruled  all  with 
indiscriminating  and  impartial  severity.  How  many 
generations  have  had  to  suffer  for  the  floggings  of 
those  times !  Hatred  of  learning,  antagonism  between 
the  teacher  and  the  taught,  the  belief  that  no  training 
can  be  effectual  which  is  not  repulsive  and  distaste- 
ful, that  no  subject  is  proper  for  instruction  which 
is  acquired  with  ease  and  pleasure — all  these  idols  of 
false  education  have  their  root  and  origin  in  monk- 
ish cruelty.  The  joy  of  human  life  would  have  been 
in  danger  of  being  stamped  out  if  it  had  not  been 
for  the  warmth  and  color  of  a  young  knight's  boy- 
hood. He  was  equally  well  broken  in  to  obedience 
and  hardship;  but  the  obedience  was  the  willing  ser- 
vice of  a  mistress  whom  he  loved,  and  the  hardship 
the  permission  to  share  the  dangers  of  a  leader  whom 
he  emulated. 

The  seven  arts  of  monkish  training  were  Gram- 
mar, Dialectics,  Rhetoric,  Music,  Arithmetic,  Geom- 


24  THE    MIDDLE    AGES 

etry,  Astronomy,  which  together  formed  the  trivium 
and  quadrivium,  the  seven  years'  course,  the  divisions 
of  which  have  profoundly  affected  our  modern 
training. 

One  of  the  earliest  treatises  based  on  this  method 
was  that  of  Martianus  Capella,  who  in  470  published 
his  Satyra,  in  nine  books.  The  first  two  were  devoted 
to  the  marriage  between  Philology  and  Mercury  ;  the 
last  seven  were  each  devoted  to  the  consideration  of 
one  of  these  liberal  arts.  Cassiodorus,  who  wrote 
De  Septcm  Disciplinis  about  500,  was  also  largely  used 
as  a  text-book  in  the  schools.  Astronomy  was 
taught  by  the  Cisio-Janus,  a  collection  of  doggrel 
hexameters  like  the  Propria  qua  maribus,  which  con- 
tained the  chief  festivals  in  each  month,  with  a 
memoria  technica  for  recollecting  when  they  occurred. 

The  seven  knightly  accomplishments,  as  historians 
tell  us,  were  to  ride,  to  swim,  to  shoot  with  the  bow, 
to  box,  to  hawk,  to  play  chess,  and  to  make  verses. 
The  verses  thus  made  were  not  in  Latin,  bald  imita- 
tions of  Ovid  or  Horace,  whose  pagan  beauties  were 
wrested  into  the  service  of  religion,  but  sonnets, 
ballads,  and  canzonets  in  soft  Proven9al  or  melodious 
Italian. 

In  nothing,  perhaps,  is  the  difference  between  these 
two  forms  of  education  more  clearly  shown  than  in 
their  relations  to  women.  A  young  monk  was 
brought  up  to  regard  a  woman  as  the  worst  among 
the  many  temptations  of  St.  Anthony.  His  life  knew 
no  domestic  tenderness  or  affection.  He  was  sur- 
rounded and  cared  for  by  celibates,  to  be  himself 
a  celibate.  A  page  was  trained  to  receive  his  best 
reward  and  worst  punishment  from  the  smile  or 


CONTRAST    BETWEEN    MONKS    AND    KNIGHTS  25 

frown  of  the  lady  of  the  castle,  and  as  he  grew  to 
manhood  to  cherish  an  absorbing  passion  as  the 
strongest  stimulus  to  a  noble  life,  and  the  contem- 
plation of  female  virtue,  as  embodied  in  an  Isolde  or 
a  Beatrice,  as  the  truest  earnest  of  future  immor- 
tality. 

Both  these  forms  of  education  disappeared  before 
the  Renaissance  and  the  Reformation.  But  we  must 
not  suppose  that  no  efforts  were  made  to  improve 
upon  the  narrowness  of  the  schoolmen  or  the  idle- 
ness of  chivalry.  The  schools  of  Charles  the  Great 
have  lately  been  investigated  by  Mr.  Mullinger,  but 
we  do  not  find  that  they  materially  advanced  the 
science  of  education.  Vincent  of  Beauvais  has  left 
us  a  very  complete  treatise  on  education,  written 
about  the  year  1245.  He  was  the  friend  and  coun- 
sellor of  St.  Louis,  and  we  may  discern  his  influence 
in  the  instructions  which  were  left  by  that  sainted 
kingfor  theguidanceof  his  son  and  daughter  through 
life. 

The  end  of  this  period  was  marked  by  the  rise  of 
universities.  Bologna  devoted  itself  to  law,  and  num- 
bered 12,000  students  at  the  end  of  the  i2th  century. 
Salerno  adopted  as  its  special  province  the  study  of 
medicine,  and  Paris  was  thronged  with  students  from 
all  parts  of  Europe,  who  were  anxious  to  devote 
themselves  to  a  theology  which  passed  by  indefinite 
gradations  into  philosophy.  The  i4th  and  i5th  cen- 
turies witnessed  the  rise  of  universities  and  acade- 
mies in  almost  every  portion  of  Europe. 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  among  these  precur- 
sors of  a  higher  culture  were  the  Brethren  of  the 
Common  Life,  who  were  domiciled  in  the  rich 


26  THE    MIDDLE    AGES 

meadows  of  the  Yssel,  in  the  Northern  Netherlands. 
The  metropolis  of  their  organization  was  Deventer, 
the  best  known  name  among  them  that  of  Gerhard 
Groote.  They  devoted  themselves  with  all  humility 
and  self-sacrifice  to  the  education  of  children.  Their 
schools  were  crowded.  Bois-le-Duc  numbered  1200 
pupils,  Zwolle  1500.  For  a  hundred  years  no  part 
of  Europe  shone  with  a  brighter  lustre. 

As  the  divine  comedy  of  Dante  represents  for  us 
the  learning  and  piety  of  the  Middle  Ages  in  Italy, 
so  the  Imitation  of  Thomas  a  Kempis  keeps  alive  for 
us  the  memory  of  the  purity  and  sweetness  of  the 
Dutch  community.  But  they  had  not  sufficient 
strength  to  preserve  their  supremacy  among  the 
necessary  developments  of  the  age.  They  could 
not  support  the  glare  of  the  new  Italian  learning; 
they  obtained,  and  it  may  be  feared  deserved,  the 
title  of  obscurantists.  The  Epistolce  Obscurorum  Vir- 
orum,  the  wittiest  squib  of  the  Middle  Ages,  which 
was  so  true  and  so  subtle  in  its  satire  that  it  was 
hailed  as  a  blow  struck  in  defence  of  the  ancient 
learning,  consists  in  great  part  of  the  lamentations 
of  the  brethren  of  Deventer  over  the  new  age,  which 
they  could  not  either  comprehend  or  withstand. 

The  education  of  the  Renaissance  is  best  repre- 
sented by  the  name  of  Erasmus,  that  of  the  Reforma- 
tion by  the  names  of  Luther  and  Melanchthon.  We 
have  no  space  to  give  an  account  of  that  marvellous 
resurrection  of  the  mind  and  spirit  of  Europe  when 
touched  by  the  dead  hand  of  an  extinct  civilization. 
The  history  of  the  revival  of  letters  belongs  rather 
to  the  general  history  of  literature  than  to  that  of 
education.  But  there  are  two  names  whom  we  ought 
not  to  pass  over. 


THE    RENAISSANCE  27 

Vittorino  da  Feltre  was  summoned  by  the  Gon- 
zagas  to  Mantua  in  1424  ;  he  was  lodged  in  a  spacious 
palace,  with  galleries,  halls,  and  colonnades  decorated 
with  frescoes  of  playing  children.  In  person  he  was 
small,  quick,  and  lively — a  born  schoolmaster,  whose 
whole  time  was  spent  in  devotion  to  his  pupils.  We 
are  told  of  the  children  of  his  patron,  how  Prince 
Gonzaga  recited  200  verses  of  his  own  composition 
at  the  age  of  fourteen,  and  how  Prince  Cecilia  wrote 
elegant  Greek  at  the  age  of  ten.  Vittorino  died  in 
1477.  He  seems  to  have  reached  the  highest  point 
of  excellence  as  a  practical  schoolmaster  of  the 
Italian  Renaissance. 

Castiglione,  on  the  other  hand  has  left  us  in  his 
Cortigiano  the  sketch  of  a  cultivated  nobleman  in 
those  most  cultivated  days.  He  shows  by  what  pre- 
cepts and  practice  the  golden  youths  of  Verona  and 
Venice  were  formed,  who  live  for  us  in  the  plays  of 
Shakespeare  as  models  of  knightly  excellence. 

For  our  instruction,  it  is  better  to  have  recourse 
to  the  pages  of  Erasmus. 
He  has  written  the  most 
minute  account  of  his 
method  of  teaching.  The 
i  child  is  to  be  formed  into  a 
good  Greek  and  Latin 
scholar  and  a  pious  man. 
He  fully  grasps  the  truth 
that  improvement  must  be 
natural  and  gradual.  Let- 
ERASMUS,  1467-1536  ters  are  to  be  taught  play- 

ing.    The    rules    of    grammar   are  ^to   be    few    and 


28  THE    REFORMATION 

short.  Every  means  of  arousing  interest  in  the 
work  is  to  be  fully  employed.  Erasmus  is  no 
Ciceronian.  Latin  is  to  be  taught  so  as  to  be  of 
use — a  living  language  adapted  to  modern  wants. 
Children  should  learn  an  art — painting,  sculpture, 
or  architecture.  Idleness  is  above  all  things  to  be 
avoided.  The  education  of  girls  is  as  necessary 
and  important  as  that  of  boys.  Much  depends  upon 
home  influence;  obedience  must  be  strict,  but  not 
too  severe.  We  must  take  account  of  individual 
peculiarities,  and  not  force  children  into  cloisters 
against  their  will.  We  shall  obtain  the  best  result 
by  following  nature. 

It  is  easy  to  see  what  a  contrast  this  scheme  pre- 
sented to  the  monkish  training, — to  the  routine  of 
useless  technicalities  enforced  amidst  the  shouts  of 
teachers  and  the  lamentations  of  the  taught. 

Still  this  culture  was  but  for  the  few.  Luther 
brought  the  schoolmaster 
into  the  cottage,  and  laid  the 
foundations  of  the  system 
which  is  the  chief  honor  and 
strength  of  modern  Ger- 
I  many,  a  system  by  which 
the  child  of  the  humblest 
peasant,  by  slow  but  certain 
gradations,  receives  the  best 
education  which  the  country 

MARTIN  LUTHER,  1483-1546      can  afforc].       The  precepts  of 

Luther  found  their  way  into  the  hearts  of  his 
countrymen  in  short,  pithy  sentences,  like  the  say- 
ings of  Poor  Richard.  The  purification  and  widen- 


ERASMUS,  LUTHER,  MELANCHTHON 


29 


PHILIPP  MELANCHTHON, 

1497-1560 


ing  of  education  went  hand  in  hand    with    the   puri- 
fication of  religion,  and  these  claims  to  affection  are 
indissolubly  united  in  the  minds  of  his  countrymen. 
Melanchthon,  from  his  editions    of  school  books 

-    • and  his   practical  labors  in 

education,  earned  the  title 
of  Praeceptor  Germanae. 
Aristotle  had  been  de- 
throned from  his  pre-emin- 
ence in  the  schools,  and 
Melanchthon  attempted  to 
supply  his  place.  He  ap- 
preciated the  importance  of 
Greek,  the  terror  of  the  ob- 
scurantists, and  is  the  au- 
thor of  a  Greek  grammar. 
He  wrote  elementary  books  on  each  department  of 
the  trivium — grammar,  dialect,  and  rhetoric.  He 
made  some  way  with  the  studies  of  the  quadrivium, 
and  wrote  Inittd  doctrines  Physiccz,  a  primer  of  physi- 
cal science.  He  lectured  at  the  university  of  Witten- 
berg, and  for  ten  years,  from  1519  to  1529,  kept  a 
schola privata  in  his  own  house. 

Horace  was  his  favorite  classic.  His  pupils  were 
taught  to  learn  the  whole  of  it  by  heart,  ten  lines  at 
a  time.  The  tender  refined  lines  of  his  well-known 
portraits  show  clearly  the  character  of  the  painful, 
accurate  scholar,  and  contrast  with  the  burly  power- 
ful form  of  the  genial  Luther  He  died  in  1560, 
racked  with  anxiety  for  the  church  which  he  had 
helped  to  found.  If  he  did  not  carry  Protestantism 


30  JOHN    STURM 

into  the  heart   of  the   peasant,  he   at    least  made    it 
acceptable  to  the  intellect  of  the  man  of  letters. 

We  now  come  to  the  names  of  three  theoretical  and 
practical  teachers  who  have  exercised  and  are  still 
exercising  a  profound  effect  over  education.  The 
so-called  Latin  school,  the  parent  of  the  gymnasium 
and  the  lycee,  had  spread  all  over  Europe,  and 
was  especially  flourishing  in  Germany.  The  pro- 
grammes and  time  tables  in  use  in  these  establish- 
ments have  come  down  to  us,  and  we  possess  notices 
of  the  lives  and  labors  of  many  of  the  earliest  teach- 
ers. It  is  not  difficult  to  trace  a  picture  of  the  edu- 
cation which  the  Reformation  offered  to  the  middle 
classes  of  Europe.  Ample  material  exists  in  Ger- 
man histories  of  education.  We  must  confine  our- 
selves to  those  moments  which  were  of  vital  influence 
in  the  development  of  the  science. 

One  school  stands  pre-eminently  before  the  rest, 
situated  in  that  border  city  on  the  debatable  land 
between  France  and  Germany,  which  has  known 

how  to  combine  and  recon- 
cile   the     peculiarities     of 
French  and    German    cul- 
ture.    Strasburg,  besides  a 
,  school    of  theology  which 
I  unites    the   depth   of  Ger- 
many to  the  clearness  and 
vivacity  of  France,  educated 
the  gilded  youth  of  the  i6th 
century  under  Sturm,  as  it 
JOHN  STURM,  1507-1589         trained  the   statesmen  and 
dipliomatists  of  the  i8th  under  Koch.     John  Sturm 


ROGER  ASCHAM  AND  LADY  JANE  GREY 


32  JOHN    STURM 

of  Strasburg  was  the  friend  of  Ascham,  the  author  of 
the  Scholemaster,  and  the  tutor  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 
It  was  Ascham  who  found  Lady  Jane  Grey  alone  in 
her  room  at  Bradgate  bending  her  neck  over  the  page 
of  Plato  when  all  the  rest  of  her  family  were  follow- 
ing the  chase. 

Sturm  was  the  first  great  head-master,  the  pro- 
genitor of  Busbys  if  not  of 
Arnolds.  He  lived  and 
worked  till  the  age  of 
\  eighty-two.  He  was  a  friend 
of  all  the  most  distinguished 
IJ  men  of  his  age,  the  chosen 
representative  of  the  Prot- 
estant cause  in  Europe, 
the  ambassador  to  foreign 
THOMAS  ARNOLD,  1795-1842  powers.  He  was  believed 
to  be  better  informed  than  any  man  of  his  time  of  the 
complications  of  foreign  politics.  Rarely  did  an 
envoy  pass  from  France  to  Germany  without  turning 
aside  to  profit  by  his  experience. 

But  the  chief  energies  of  his  life  were  devoted  to 
teaching.  He  drew  his  scholars  from  the  whole  of 
Europe;  Portugal,  Poland,  England  sent  their  con- 
tingent to  his  halls.  In  1578,  his  school  numbered 
several  thousand  students;  he  supplied  at  once  the 
place  of  the  cloister  and  the  castle.  What  he  most 
insisted  upon  was  the  teaching  of  Latin,  not  the 
conversational  lingua  franca  of  Erasmus,  but  pure, 
elegant  Ciceronian  Latinity.  He  may  be  called  the 
introducer  of  scholarship  into  the  schools,  a  scholar- 
ship which  as  yet  took  little  account  of  Greek.  His 


JOHN     STURM  33 

pupils  would  write  elegant  letters,  deliver  elegant 
Latin  speeches,  be  familiar,  if  not  with  the  thoughts, 
at  least  with  the  language  of  the  ancients,  would  be 
scholars  in  order  that  they  might  be  gentlemen. 

Our  space  will  not  permit  us  to  trace  the  whole 
course  of  his  influence,  but  he  is  in  all  probability 
as  much  answerable  as  any  one  for  the  euphuistic 
refinement  which  overspread  Europe  in  the  i6th 
century,  and  which  went  far  to  ruin  and  corrupt  its 
literatures.  Nowhere  perhaps  had  he  more  effect 
than  in  England.  Our  older  public  schools,  on 
breaking  with  the  ancient  faith,  looked  to  Sturm  as 
their  model  of  Protestant  education.  His  name  and 
example  became  familiar  to  us  by  the  exertions  of 
his  friend  Ascham.  Westminster,  under  the  long 
reign  of  Busby,  received  a  form  which  was  gener- 
ally accepted  as  the  type  of  a  gentleman's  education. 
The  Public  School  Commission  of  1862  found  that 
the  lines  laid  down  by  the  great  citizen  of  Stras- 
burg,  and  copied  by  his  admirers,  had  remained 
unchanged  until  within  the  memory  of  the  present 
generation. 

Wolfgang  Ratke  or  Ratichius  was  born  in  Hoi- 
stein  in  1571.  He  anticipated  some  of  the  best  im- 
provements in  the  method  of  teaching  which  have 
been  made  in  modern  times.  He  was  like  many  of 
those  who  have  tried  to  improve  existing  methods 
in  advance  of  his  age,  and  he  was  rewarded  for  his 
labors  at  Augsburg,  Weimar,  and  Kothen  by  perse- 
cution and  imprisonment.  '  Can  we  wonder  that 
education  has  improved  so  slowly  when  so  much 
pains  has  been  taken  to  silence  and  extinguish  those 
who  have  devoted  themselves  to  its  improvement? 


34  WOLFGANG    RATKE 

His  chief  rules  were  as  follows : 

1.  Begin  everything  with  prayer. 

2.  Do  everything  in  order,  following  the  course  of 
nature. 

3.  One  thing  at  a  time. 

4.  Often  repeat  the  same  thing. 

5.  Teach  everything  first  in  the  mother  tongue. 

6.  Proceed  from  the  mother   tongue  to  other  lan- 
guages. 

7.  Teach    without  compulsion.     Do  not  beat  chil- 
dren to  make   them    learn.     Pupils    must  love  their 
masters,  not    hate  them.     Nothing  should    be  learnt 
by  heart.     Sufficient   time   should    be   given  to  play 
and  recreation.     Learn  one  thing  before  going  on  to 
another.     Do  not  teach  for  two  hours  consecutively. 

8.  Uniformity    in    teaching,  also  in   school-books, 
especially  grammars,  which  may  with  advantage  be 
made  comparative. 

9.  Teach    a  thing  first,  and  then  the  reason  of  it. 
Give  no  rules  before  you  have  given  the  examples. 
Teach  no  language  out  of  the  grammar,  but  out  of 
authors. 

10.  Let  everything    be    taught    by    induction    and 
experiment. 

Most  of  these  precepts  are  accepted  by  all  good 
teachers  in  the  present  day;  all  of  them  are  full  of 
wisdom.  Unfortunately  their  author  saw  the  faults 
of  the  teaching  of  his  time  more  clearly  than  the 
means  to  remove  them,  and  he  was  more  successful 
in  forming  precepts  than  in  carrying  them  out. 
Notwithstanding  these  drawbacks,  he  deserves  an 
honorable  place  among  the  forerunners  of  a  rational 
education. 


JOHN    AMOS    COMENIUS  35 

John  Amos  Comenius  was  the  antithesis  to  Sturmr 
and  a  greater  man  than 
Ratke.  Born  a  Moravian^ 
he  passed  a  wandering  life, 
among  the  troubles  of  the 
I  Thirty  Years'  War,  in  pov- 
erty and  obscurity.  But 
his  ideas  were  accepted  by 
the  most  advanced  thinkers 
of  the  age,  notably  in  many 
respects  by  our  own  Mil- 
JOHN  AMOS  COMENIUS,  1592-1671  ton>  and  by  Qxenstiern,  the 

chancellor  of  Sweden.  His  school  books  were  spread 
throughout  Europe.  The  J^anua  Linguarum  Reser- 
vata  was  translated  into  twelve  European  and  several 
Asiatic  languages.  His  works,  especially  the  Dida- 
scalia  magna,  an  encyclopaedia  of  the  science  of 
education,  are  constantly  reprinted  at  the  present 
day  ;  and  the  system  which  he  sketched  will  be  found 
to  foreshadow  the  education  of  the  future. 

He  was  repelled  and  disgusted  by  the  long  delays 
and  pedantries  of  the  schools.  His  ardent  mind 
conceived  that  if  teachers  would  but  follow  nature 
instead  of  forcing  it  against  its  bent,  take  full  advan- 
tage of  the  innate  desire  for  activity  and  growth,  all 
men  might  be  able  to  learn  all  things.  Languages 
should  be  taught  as  the  mother  tongue  is  taught,  by 
conversations  on  ordinary  topics;  pictures,  object 
lessons  should  be  freely  used;  teaching  should  go 
hand  in  hand  with,  a  cheerful  elegant,  and  happy  life. 
Comenius  included  in  his  course  the  teaching  of  the 
mother  tongue,  singing,  economy,  and  politics,  the 
history  of  the  world,  physical  geography,  and  a 
knowledge  of  arts  and  handicrafts. 


•  f  A  N  U  A 

LINGUA  RUM 

RESERATA: 

S  I  VE, 

Omnium  Scientiarum  Si   Linguarum 
SEMINARIUM: 

ID    EST, 

Cosipendiofa  Latinam  8c  Anglicam  3   aliafque 

Linguas  &  Artiom  euam  fund  Amenta  addifcendi  me- 

tbodu  ;  una  cum  ]anu2C  Lacinuatis  Veiiihulo. 

Antore  Cl.  Vitro  J.  A.  C  o  M  £  N  I  o. 


The  GATE  of  LANGUAGES- 
UNLOCKED: 

Or3  a  SEED-PLOT  of  all  Arts  and  Tongues  5 
containing  2  ready  way  to  learn  the  Latine 
and  Englifh  Tongue. 

Formerly  tranflated  by  T  H  o.  HORN:  afterwards  much 
correSed  and  amended  by  }  o  H.  P\  o  B  o  T  H  A  M  : 
now  carefully  reviewecf  hv  W.  D.  to  which  is 
prcmifcda  PORTAL. 

As  alfo  5  there  is  now  newly  added  the  Foundation  to  the 
Janu&9  containing  all  or  the  chiefe  Primitives  of  the 
Latine  Tongue,drawn  into  Sentences,  in  an  Alphabe- 
ts tirall  order  hyG.F. 
W 


, 

Printed  by  Edw.Grifjiny  and  Wil.  Hunt,  for  ?hom&  Slater,  and  art  ro  bs 
fold  by  the  Company  of  Stationers,  I  6  $  »• 


The  Portal  to 


fenfus,fcx  profefti  dies- 
Septem  petitionesin  Oratione 

Dominica* 

Qfto  dies  /unt  feprimana. 
Ter  tria  funt  norem* 
Deccm  precepta  Dei. 
Undecim  Apoftoli,  dempto 

Judi. 

Diiodecim  fidci  ardculi. 
Triginw  dies  funt  mcnfis. 
Centum  anni  funt  fcculum. 
Ssranas  eft  milk  fraud-am  ar- 

tifex. 


CAP.  4. 
Hereto*  in  fchol* 

SCholafticus       freqentat 
fcholam. 
Qu6  in  artibus  erudiatur. 

Initiumeftiliteris- 
E  fyllabis  voces  componuntur 
E  diftionibus  ferrno: 
Ex  libro  legimus  tacit^. 
Aucrecitamus  clare^ 
Involvjmus  cum  nnembrana 
Et  ponimus  in  pulpito. 
Atramentum  eft  in  atramenra 
rio,in  quo  tingimus  calamum 
Scribimus  co  in  charta,   in 

utraque  pagina. 
Si  perperam,  delcmus. 
EC  fignamus  denuo  rcdc  5  vel 

in  margins. 
Dpdor  doccr  • 
Difcipulus  dlfcic  non  c^inia 

fimul,  fed  per  parces. 
Praeccptor  prxcipic  facicnda; 

R  fftor  wgu  Acidcmtam     r 


Four  Ev&;geliftt9  five  ftnfetf  fix 


"  Seven  petition*  In 


Thnce  th>  (tare  nine. 

Ten  Commirndtmtmi  ofGtct,     £ 

f.  ,    /i/     t   i  JL  •  crasa 


ctpted.  Supper 

rmh*  Artistes  of  the  Faith,    divide* 
Thin?  d&jes  *n  a  mneth. 
•4  hundred  ye&s  are  &n.  &gt* 
Set&n  it,  the  fo>'g$r  of  at' 

deceits. 


GHAP.  4. 

Of  things  in  a  fchool* 

A     Scholty    frcquentttb   the 
**    fchoote. 

That  he  m*\kt  infbu&dm  tbt 
Arts. 


wds  are  compefed  of  bUMet. 


we  regdflentfy  out  of  A 
0.'  recite  it  <d*ud. 
we  wrap  it  ftp  i 


n%  is  in  the  i»^&r«,  in  wh.cb 


we  wilt  with  It  i&  paper,  on  ei- 
ther page. 


Andtbtn  tovlt  it  in  tht  linear  in 


. 

»#  teacher  is  tcketb, 
Afc'mUr  kirwih  not  dtogtttw, 

but  by  pArti. 
ThtMtfttr  tommeatti  tbivgt  t* 


The  G&witsr  r*!eft*tbt  Acde- 
E  Th 


38  JOHN    AMOS   COMENIUS 

But  the  principle  on  which  he  most  insisted,  which 
forms  the  special  point  of  his  teaching,  and  in  which 
he  is  followed  by  Milton,  is  that  the  teaching  of 
words  and  things  must  go  together  hand  in  hand. 
When  we  consider  how  much  time  is  spent  over  new 
languages,  what  waste  of  energy  is  lavished  on  mere 
preparation,  how  it  takes  so  long  to  lay  a  foundation 
that  there  is  no  time  to  rear  a  building  upon  it,  we 
must  conclude  that  it  is  in  theacceptanceand  develop- 
ment of  this  principle  that  the  improvement  of  edu- 
cation will  in  the  future  consist.  Any  one  who 
attempts  to  inculcate  this  great  reform  will  find  that 
its  first  principles  are  contained  in  the  writings  of 
Comenius. 

But  this  is  not  the  whole  of  his  claim  upon  our 
gratitude.  He  was  one  of  the  first  advocates  of  the 
teaching  of  science  in  schools.  His  kindness,  gentle- 
ness, and  sympathy  make  him  the  forerunner  of 
Pestalozzi.  His  general  principles  of  education 
would  not  sound  strange  in  the  treatise  of  Herbert 
Spencer. 

The  Protestant  schools  were  now  the  best  in 
Europe,  and  the  monkish 
institutions  were  left  to  de- 
cay. Catholics  would  have 
remained  behind  in  the  race 
if  it  had  not  been  for  the 
Jesuits.  Ignatius  Loyola 
gave  this  direction  to  the 
order  which  he  founded,  and 
the  programme  of  studies, 
which  dates  from  the  end  of 
IGNATIUS  DE  LOYOLA,  1491-1556 the  sixteenth  century,  is  in 


THE    JESUITS  39 

use,  with  certain  modifications,  in  English  Jesuit 
schools  at  the  present  day.x  In  1550  the  first  Jesuit 
school  was  opened  in  Germany;  in  1700  the  order 
possessed  612  colleges,  157  normal  schools,  59  novi- 
ciates, 340  residences,  200  missions,  29  professed 
homes,  and  24  universities.  The  college  of  Clermont 
had  3000  students  in  1695. 

Every  Jesuit  college  was  divided  into  two  parts, 
the  one  for  higher,  the  other  for  lower  education, 
— the  studio,  superiora  and  the  studia  inferiora.  The 
studia  inferiora,  answering  to  the  modern  gymnasium, 
was  divided  into  five  classes.  The  first  three  were 
classes  of  grammar  (rudiments),  grammar  (acci- 
dence), and  syntax ;  the  last  two  humanity  and 
rhetoric. 

The  motto  of  the  schools  was  lege,  scribe,  loquere, — 
you  must  learn  not  only  to  read  and  write  a  dead 
language,  but  to  talk.  Purism  was  even  more 
exaggerated  that  by  Sturm.  No  word  might  be  used 
which  did  not  rest  upon  a  special  authority.  The 
composition  of  Latin  verses  was  strongly  encouraged, 
and  the  performance  of  Latin  plays.  Greek  •  w*as 
studied  to  some  extent;  mathematics,  geography, 
music,  and  the  mother  tongues  were  neglected. 

The  studia  superiora  began  with  a  philosophical 
course  of  two  or  three  years.  In  the  first  year  logic 
was  taught,  in  the  second  the  books  of  Aristotle,  dc 
<r^/<?,  the  first  book  de generatione,  and  the  Meteorologica. 
In  the  third  year  the  second  book  de  generatwne,  the 
books  de  anima,  and  the  Metaphysics.  After  the  com- 
pletion of  the  philosophical  course  the  pupil  studied 
theology  for  four  years. 


THE    JESUITS 


The  Jesuits  used  to  the  full  the  great  engine  of 
emulation.  Their  classes  were  divided  into  two 
parts,  Romans  and  Carthaginians;  swords,  shields, 
and  lances  hung  on  the  walls,  and  were  carried  off 
in  triumph  as  either  party  claimed  the  victory  by  a 
fortunate  answer. 

It  would  be  unfair  to  deny  the  merits  of  the  educa- 
tion of  the  Jesuits.  Bacon 
speaks  of  them  in  more  than 
one  passage  as  the  revivers 
of  this  most  important  art. 
Quum  talis  sis  utinam  noster 
\  esses.  Descartes  approved 
of  their  system ;  Chateau- 
briand regarded  their  sup- 
pression as  a  calamity  to 
civilization  and  enlighten- 
ment. They  were  probably 
the  first  to  bring  the  teacher 
into  close  connection  with 
the  taught.  According  to 
their  ideal  the  teacher  was 
neither  inclosed  in  a  clois- 
ter,secluded  from  hispupils, 
nor  did  he  keep  order  by 
stamping,  raving,  and  flog- 
ging. He  was  encouraged 
to  apply  his  mind  and  soul 
to  the  mind  and  soul  of  his 
pupil  ;  to  study  the  nature,  the  disposition,  the  par- 
ents of  his  scholars;  to  follow  nature  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, or  rather  to  lie  in  wait  for  it  and  discover 
its  weak  points,  and  where  it  could  be  most  easily 


FRANCIS  BACON,  1561  1626 


RENE  DESCARTES,  1596-1650 


THEIR    FAULTS  4! 

attacked.  Doubtless  the  Jesuits  have  shown  a  love, 
devotion,  and  self-sacrifice  in  education,  which  is 
worthy  of  the  highest  praise;  no  teacher  who  would 
compete  with  them  can  dare  do  less. 

On  the  other  hand,  they  are  open  to  grave  accusa- 
tion. Their  watchful  care  degenerated  into  surveil- 
lance, which  lay-schools  have  borrowed  from  them  ; 
their  study  of  nature  has  led  them  to  confession  and 
direction.  /They  have  tracked  out  the  soul  to  its 
recesses,  that  they  might  slay  it  there,  and  generate 
another  in  its  place ;  they  educated  each  mind  accord- 
ing to  its  powers,  that  it  might  be  a  more  subservient 
tool  to  their  own  purposes. s  They  taught  the  ac- 
complishments which  the  world  loves,  but  their  chief 
object  was  to  amuse  the  mind  and  stifle  inquiry; 
they  engaged  Latin  verses,  because  they  were  a  con- 
venient plaything  on  which  powers  might  be  exer- 
cised which  could  have  been  better  employed  in 
understanding  and  discussing  higher  subjects  f  they 
were  the  patrons  of  school  plays,  of  public  prizes, 
declamations,  examinations,  and  other  exhibitions, 
in  which  the  parents  were  more  considered  than  the 
boys;  they  regarded  the  claims  of  education,  not  as 
a  desire  to  be  encouraged,  but  as  a  demand  to  be 
played  with  and  propitiated;  they  gave  the  best 
education  of  their  time  in  order  to  acquire  confidence, 
but  they  became  the  chief  obstacle  to  the  improve- 
ment, of  education;  they  did  not  care  for  enlighten- 
ment, but  only  for  the  influence  which  they  could 
derive  from  a  supposed  regard  for  enlightenment. 

What  may  have  been  the  service  of  Jesuits  in  past 
times,  we  have  little  to  hope  for  them  in  the  improve- 
ment of  education  at  present.  Governments  have, 


42  MONTAIGNE 

on  the  whole,  acted  wisely  by  checking  and  sup- 
pressing their  colleges.  The  ratio  studiorum  is  an- 
tiquated and  difficult  to  reform.  In  1831  it  was 
brought  more  into  accordance  with  modern  ideas  by 
Roothaan,  the  general  of  the  order.  Beckx,  his  suc- 
cessor, has,  if  anything,  pursued  a  policy  of  retro- 
gression. The  Italian  Government,  in  taking  pos- 
session of  Rome,  found  that  the  pupils  of  the  Col- 
legio  Romano  were  far  below  the  level  of  modern 
requirements. 

It  may  be  imagined  that,  by  this  organization  both 
Catholic  and  Protestant  were  apt  to  degenerate  into 
pedantry,  both   in  name  and  purpose.     The  school- 
master had  a  great  deal  too  much  the  best  of  it.     The 
Latin  school  was  tabulated  and  organized  until  every 
half  hour  of  a  boy's  time  was  occupied;  the  Jesuit 
school  took  possession  of  the  pupil  body  and  soul. 
It  was,  therefore,  to  be  expected  that  a  stand  should 
be  made  for  common  sense  in  the  direction  of  prac- 
tice rather  than  theory,  of  wisdom  instead  of  learning. 
Montaigne  has  left  us  the  most  delightful  utter- 
ances about  education.    He 
says   that  the  faults   of  the 
education    of  his  day  con- 
sist  in    overestimating   the 
intellect  and  rejecting  mor- 
ality, in  exaggerating  mem- 
ory and  depreciating   use- 
ful knowledge.     He  recom- 
mends  a  tutor  who  should 
draw    out    the  pupil's   own 
MICHEL  EQUEM  DE  MON-      power   and    originality,    to 
TAIGNE,  1533-1592  teach  how  to  live  well  and 

to  die  well,  to  enforce  a  lesson  by  practice,  to  put 


LOCKE  43 

the  mother  tongue  before  foreign  tongues,  to  teach 
all  manly  exercises,  to  educate  the  perfect  man. 
Away  with  force  and  compulsion,  with  severity  and 
the  rod. 

John  Locke,  more  than  a  hundred  years  afterwards, 
made  a  more  powerful  and 
systematic  attack  upon  use- 
less knowledge.  His  theory 
of  the  origin  of  ideas  led 
him  to  assign  great  import- 
ance to  education,  while  his 
knowledge  of  the  operations 
of  the  human  mind  lends  a 
special  value  to  his  advice. 
His  treatise  has  received  in 
JOHN  LOCKE,  1632-1704  England  more  attention 
than  it  deserves,  partly  because  we  have  so  few  books 
written  upon  the  subject  on  which  he  treats  Part 
of  his  advice  is  useless  at  the  present  day  ;  part  it 
would  be  well  to  follow,  or  at  any  rate  to  consider 
seriously,  especially  his  condemnation  of  repetition 
by  heart  as  a  means  of  strengthening  the  memory, 
and  of  Latin  verses  and  themes. 

He  sets  before  himself  the  production  of  the  man, 
a  sound  mind  in  a  sound  body.  His  knowledge  of 
medicine  gives  great  value  to  his  advice  on  the  earl- 
iest education,  although  he  probably  exaggerates  the 
benefits  of  enforced  hardships.  He  recommends 
home  education  without  harshness  or  severity  of 
discipline.  Emulation  is  to  be  the  chief  spring  of 
action;  knowledge  is  far  less  valuable  than  a  well- 
trained  mind.  He  prizes  that  knowledge  most  which 


44  MILTON 

fits  a  man  for  the  duties  of  the  world,  speaking  lan- 
guages, accounts,  history,  law,  logic,  rhetoric,  natural 
philosophy.  He  inculcates  the  importance  of  draw- 
ing, dancing,  riding,  fencing,  and  trades. 

The  part  of  his  advice  which  made  the  most  im- 
pression upon  his  contemporaries  was  the  teaching 
of  reading  and  arithmetic  by  well-considered  games, 
the  discouragement  of  an  undue  compulsion  and 
punishment,  and  the  teaching  of  language  without 
the  drudgery  of  grammar.  In  these  respects  he  has 
undoubtedly  anticipated  modern  discoveries.  He  is 
a  strong  advocate  for  home  education  under  a  private 
tutor,  and  his  bitterness  against  public  schools  is  as 
vehement  as  that  of  Cowper. 

Far  more  important  in  the  literature  of  this  sub- 
ject   than    the    treatise    of 
Locke    is    the    Tractate   of 
Education*  by  Milton,  "the 
few    observations,"    as    he 
tells   us,    "which    flowered 
off,  and  are,  as  it  were,  the 
burnishings  of  many  studi- 
ous    and     contemplative 
years  spent    in    search    for 
civil  and  religious  knowl- 
JOHN  MILTON,  1608-1674        edge."     This   essay    is    ad- 
dressed to  Samuel   Hartlib,  a  great  friend  of  Come- 
nius,  and  probably  refers  to  a  project  of  establishing 
a  university  in  London. 

"  I  will  point  you  out,"  Milton  says,  "  the  right  path 
of  a  virtuous  and  noble  education, — laborious,  indeed, 

*  School  Room  Classics,  vi.  A  Small  Tractate  of  Education,  by  John 
Milton,  16:26,  15  cts.  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  C.  W.  Bardeen. 


MILTON  45 

at  first  ascent^  but  else  so  smooth  and  green  and  full 
of  goodly  prospects  and  melodious  sounds  on  every 
side,  that  the  harp  of  Orpheus  is  not  more  charming." 
This  is  to  be  done  between  twelve  and  one-and-twenty, 
in  an  academy  containing  about  a  hundred  and  thirty 
scholars,  which  shall  be  at  once  school  and  univer- 
sity,— not  needing  a  remove  to  any  other  house  of 
scholarship  except  it  be  some  peculiar  college  of 
law  and  physics,  where  they  mean  to  be  practitioners. 

The  important  truth  enunciated  is  quite  in  the 
spirit  of  Comenius  that  the  learning  of  things  and 
words  is  to  go  hand  in  hand.  The  curriculum  is 
very  large.  Latin,  Greek,  arithmetic,  geometry, 
agriculture,  geography,  physiology,  physics,  trigo- 
nometry, fortification,  architecture,  engineering, 
navigation,  anatomy,  medicine,  poetry,  Italian,  law, 
both  Roman  and  English,  Hebrew,  with  Chaldee  and 
Syriac,  history,  oratory,  poetics. 

But  the  scholars  are  not  to  be  book-worms.  They 
are  to  be  trained  for  war,  both  on  foot  and  on  horse- 
back, to  be  practised  u  in  all  the  locks  and  gripes  of 
wrestling,"  they  are  to  "recreate  and  compose  their 
travailed  spirits  with  the  divine  harmonies  of  music 
heard  or  learnt."  "  In  those  vernal  seasons  of  the 
year  when  the  air  is  calm  and  pleasant,  it  were  an 
injury  and  a  sullenness  against  Nature  not  to  go  out 
and  see  her  riches,  and  partake  in  her  rejoicing  with 
heaven  and  earth.  I  should  not  then  be  a  persuader 
to  them  of  studying  much  then,  after  two  or  three 
years  that  they  have  well  laid  their  grounds,  but  to 
ride  out  in  companies  with  prudent  and  staid  guides 
to  all  the  quarters  of  the  land." 


46  PORT    ROYAL 

The  whole  treatise  is  full  of  wisdom,  and  deserves 
to  be  studied  again  and  again.  Visionary  as  it  may 
appear  to  some  at  first  sight,  if  translated  into  the 
language  of  our  own  day,  it  will  be  found  to  abound 
with  sound,  practical  advice.  "  Only,"  Milton  says  in 
conclusion,  "  I  believe  that  this  is  not  a  bow  for  every 
man  to  shoot  who  counts  himself  a  teacher,  but  will 
require  sinews  almost  equal  to  those  which  Homer 
gave  Ulysses;  yet  I  am  persuaded  that  it  may  prove 
much  more  easy  in  the  essay  than  it  now  seems  at  a 
distance,  and  much  more  illustrious  if  God  have  so 
decided  and  this  age  have  spirit  and  capacity  enough 
to  apprehend." 

Almost  while  Milton  was  writing  this  treatise,  he 
might  have  seen  an  attempt  to  realize  something  of 
his  ideal  in  Port  Royal.  What  a  charm  does  this 
name  awaken  !  Yet  how  few  of  us  have  made  a  pil- 
grimage to  that  secluded  vallqy  !  Here  we  find  for 
the  first  time  in  the  modern  world  the  highest  gifts 
of  the  greatest  men  of  a  country  applied  to  the  busi- 
ness of  education.  Arnauld,  Lancelot,  Nicole  did 
not  commence  by  being  educational  philosophers. 
They  began  with  a  small  school,  and  developed  their 
method  as  they  proceeded.  Their  success  has  seldom 
been  surpassed. 

But  a  more  lasting  memorial  than  their  pupils  are 
the  books  which  they  sent  out,  which  bear  the  name 
of  their  cloister.  The  Port  Royal  Logic,  General 
Grammar,  Greek,  Latin,  Italian,  and  Spanish  Gram- 
mars, the  Garden  of  Greek  Roots  which  taught  Greek 
to  Gibbon,  the  Port  Royal  Geometry,  and  their  trans- 
lations of  the  classics  held  the  first  place  among 
school  books  for  more  than  a  century. 


FRANCKE 


47 


The  success  of  the  Jansenists  was  too  much  for  the 
jealousy  of  the  Jesuits.  Neither  piety,  nor  wit,  nor 
virtue  could  save  them.  A  light  was  quenched  which 
would  have  given  an  entirely  different  direction  to 
the  education  of  France  and  of  Europe.  No  one  can 
visit  without  emotion  that  retired  nook  which  lies 
hidden  among  the  forests  of  Versailles,  where  the 
old  brick  dove-cot,  the  pillars  of  the  church,  the  trees 
of  the  desert  alone  remain  to  speak  to  us  of  Pascal, 
Racine,  and  the  Mere  Angelique. 

The  principles  of  Port  Royal  found  some  sup- 
porters in  a  later  time,  in 
the  better  days  of  French 
education  before  monarch- 
ism  and  militarism  had 
crushed  the  life  out  of  the 
nation.  Rollin  is  never 
mentioned  without  the  epi- 
thet bori)  a  testimony  to  his 
wisdom,  virtue  and  sim- 
plicity. Fenelon  may  be 
reckoned  as  belonging  to 
the  same  school,  but  he  was 
more  fitted  to  mix  and  grap- 
ple with  mankind. 

No  history   of  education 
,  would  be  complete  without 
the    name    of  August  Her- 
mann Francke,  the  founder 
of  the    school    of   Pietists, 
and  of  a  number  of  institu- 
tions   which  now    form  al- 
AFP.  FENELON,  1651-1715       most  a  suburb  in  the  town 


CHARLES  ROLLIN,  1661-1741 


4°  THE     PIETISTS 

of   Halle  to    which    his  labors    were  devoted.     The 

first  scenes  of  his  activity 
were  Leipzig  and  Dresden  ; 
but  in  1692,  at  the  age  of  29, 
he  was  made  pastor  of 
Glaucha,  near  Halle,  and 
professor  in  the  newly  es- 
tablished university. 

Three  years  later  he  com- 
menced   his    poor     school 

AUGUST  HERMANN  FRANCKE,  with      a     Capital      of      seven 

1663-1727  guelders  which  he  found  in 

the  poor  box  of  his  house.  At  his  death  in  1727  he 
left  behind  him  the  following  institutions: — a  paeda- 
gogium,  or  training  college,  with  eighty-two  scholars 
and  seventy  teachers  receiving  education,  and  attend- 
ants ;  the  Latin  school  of  the  orphan  asylum,  with 
three  inspectors,  thirty-two  teachers,  four  hundred 
scholars,  and  ten  servants  ;  the  German  town  schools, 
with  four  inspectors,  ninety-eight  teachers,  eight 
female  teachers,  and  one  thousand  seven  hundred 
and  twenty-five  boys  and  girls.  The  establishment 
for  orphan  children  contained  one  hundred  boys, 
thirty-four  girls,  and  ten  attendants.  A  cheap  public 
dining-table  was  attended  by  two  hundred  and  fifty- 
five  students  and  three  hundred  and  sixty  poor 
scholars,  and  besides  this  there  was  an  apothecary's 
and  a  bookseller's  shop. 

Francke's  principles  of  education  were  strictly 
religious.  Hebrew  was  included  in  his  curriculum, 
but  the  heathen  classics  were  treated  with  slight  re- 
spect. The  Homilies  of  Macarius  were  read  in  the 


ROUSSEAU  49 

place  of  Thucydides.  As  might  be  expected,  the 
rules  laid  down  for  discipline  and  moral  training 
breathed  a  spirit  of  deep  affection  and  sympathy. 

Francke's  great  merit,  however,  is  to  have  left  us 
a  model  of  institutions  by  which  children  of  all 
ranks  may  receive  an  education  to  fit  them  for  any 
position  in  life.  The  Franckesche  Stiftungen  are 
still,  next  to  the  university,  the  centre  of  the  intel- 
lectual life  of  Halle,  and  the  different  schools  which 
they  contain  give  instruction  to  3,500  children. 

We  now  come  to  the  book  which  has  had  more  in- 
fluence than  any  other  on  the  education  of  later 
times.  The  Emile  of  Rousseau  was  published  in 

1762.  It  produced  an  as- 
tounding effect  throughout 
Europe.  Those  were  days 
when  the  whole  cultivated 
world  vibrated  to  any 
touch  of  new  philosophy. 
French  had  superseded 
Latin  as  the  general  medi- 
um of  thought.  French 

JEAN  JACQUES  ROUSSEAU,      learning  stood  in  the  same 
1712-1778  relation  to  the  rest  of  Eu- 

rope as  German  learning  does  now  :  and  any  dis- 
covery of  D'Alembert,  Rousseau,  or  Maupertuis 
travelled  with  inconceivable  speed  from  Versailles 
to  Schonbrunn,  from  the  Spree  to  the  Neva.  Kant 
in  his  distant  home  of  Konigsberg  broke  for  one  day 
through  his  habits,  more  regular  than  the  town  clock, 
and  staid  at  home  to  study  the  new  revelation. 


50  ROUSSEAU 

The  burthen  of  Rousseau's  message  was  nature, 
such  a  nature  as  never  did  and  never  will  exist,  but 
still  a  name  for  an  ideal  worthy  of  our  struggles. 
He  revolted  against  the  false  civilization  which  he 
saw  around  him  ;  he  was  penetrated  with  sorrow  at 
the  shams  of  government  and  society,  at  the  misery 
of  the  poor  existing  side  by  side  with  the  heartless- 
ness  of  the  rich.  The  child  should  be  the  pupil  of 
nature. 

He  lays  great  stress  on  the  earliest  education.  The 
first  year  of  life  is  in  every  respect  the  most  impor- 
tant. Nature  must  be  closely  followed.  The  child's 
tears  are  petitions  which  should  be  granted.  The 
naughtiness  of  children  comes  from  weakness  ;  make 
the  child  strong  and  he  will  be  good.  Children's 
destructiveness  is  a  form  of  activity.  Do  not  be  too 
anxious  to  make  children  talk  ;  be  satisfied  with  a 
small  vocabulary.  Lay  aside  all  padded  caps  and 
baby  jumpers.  Let  children  learn  to  walk  by  learn- 
ing that  it  hurts  them  to  fall.  Do  not  insist  so  much 
on  the  duty  of  obedience  as  on  the  necessity  of  sub- 
mission to  natural  laws.  Do  not  argue  too  much 
with  children ;  educate  the  heart  to  wish  for  right 
actions  ;  before  all  things  study  nature.  The  chief 
moral  principle  is  do  no  one  harm. 

Emile  is  to  be  taught  by  the  real  things  of  life,  by 
observation  and  experience.  At  twelve  years  old  he 
is  scarcely  to  know  what  a  book  is;  to  be  able  to 
read  and  write  at  fifteen  is  quite  enough.  We  must 
first  make  him  a  man,  and  that  chiefly  by  athletic 
exercises.  Educate  his  sight  to  measure,  count,  and 


THE    EMILE  51 

weight  accurately  ;  teach  him  to  draw;  tune  his  ear 
to  time  and  harmony:  give  him  simple  food,  but  let 
him  eat  as  much  as  he  likes.  'Thus  at  twelve  years 
old  Emile  is  a  real  child  of  nature.  His  carriage  and 
bearing  are  fair  and  confident,  his  nature  open  and 
candid,  his  speech  simple  and  to  the  point ;  his  ideas 
are  few  but  clear;  he  knows  nothing  by  learning, 
much  by  experience.  He  has  read  deeply  in  the 
book  of  nature.  His  mind  is  not  on  his  tongue  but 
in  his  head.  He  speaks  only  one  language,  but 
knows  what  he  is  saying,  and  can  do  what  he  cannot 
describe.  Routine  and  custom  are  unknown  to  him  ; 
authority  and  example  affect  him  not  :  he  does  what 
he  thinks  right.  He  understands  nothing  of  duty 
and  obedience,  but  he  will  do  what  you  ask  him,  and 
will  expect  a  similar  service  of  you  in  return.  His 
strength  and  body  are  fully  developed  ;  he  is  first- 
rate  at  running,  jumping,  and  judging  distances. 
Should  he  die  at  this  age  he  wrill  so  far  have  lived 
his  life. 

From  twelve  to  fifteen  Emile's  practical  education 
is  to  continue.  He  is  still  to  avoid  books  which 
teach  not  learning  itself  but  to  appear  learned.  He 
is  to  be  taught  and  to  practise  some  handicraft.  Half 
the  value  of  education  is  to  waste  time  wisely,  to 
tide  over  dangerous  years  with  safety,  until  the 
character  is  better  able  to  stand  temptation. 

At  fifteen  a  new  epoch  commences.  The  passions 
are  awakened;  the  care  of  the  teacher  should  now 
redouble;  he  should  never  leave  the  helm.  Emile 
having  gradually  acquired  the  love  of  himself  and  of 


52  ROUSSEAU 

those  immediately  about  him,  will  begin  to  love  his 
kind.  Now  is  the  time  to  teach  him  history,  and  the 
machinery  of  society,  the  world  as  it  is  and  as  it 
might  be.  Still  an  encumbrance  of  useless  and  bur- 
densome knowledge  is  to  be  avoided.  Between  this 
age  and  manhood  Emile  learns  all  that  it  is  necessary 
for  him  to  know. 

It  is,  perhaps,  strange  that  a  book  in  many  respects 
so  wild  and  fantastic  should  have  produced  so  great 
a  practical  effect.  In  pursuance  of  its  precepts, 
children  went  about  naked,  were  not  allowed  to  read, 
and  when  they  grew  up  wore  the  simplest  clothes, 
and  cared  for  little  learning  except  the  study  of 
nature  and  Plutarch. 

The  catastrophe  of  the  French  Revolution  has 
made  the  importance  of  Emile  less  apparent  to  us. 
Much  of  the  heroism  of  that  time  is  doubtless  due  to 
the  exaltation  produced  by  the  sweeping  away  of 
abuses,  and  the  approach  of  a  brighter  age.  But  we 
must  not  forget  that  the  first  generation  of  Emile 
was  just  thirty  years  old  in  1792;  that  many  of  the 
Girondins,  the  Marseillais,  the  soldiers-and  generals 
of  Carnot  and  Napoleon  had  been  bred  in  that  hardy 
school.  There  is  no  more  interesting  chapter  in  the 
history  of  education  than  the  tracing  back  of  epochs 
of  special  activity  to  the  obscure  source  from  which 
they  arose.  Thus  the  Whigs  of  the  Reform  Bill 
sprang  from  the  wits  of  Edinburgh,  the  heroes  of  the 
Rebellion  from  the  divines  who  translated  the  Bible, 
the  martyrs  of  the  Revolution  from  the  philosophers 
of  the  Encyclopaedia. 


BASEDOW  S3 

The  teaching  of  Rousseau  found  its  practical 
expression  in  the  philan- 
thropin  of  Dessau,  a  school 
founded  by  Basedow,  the 
friend  of  Goethe  and  La- 
|  vater,  one  of  the  two 
prophets  between  whom 
the  world-child  sat  bodkin 
in  that  memorable  post- 
chaise  journey  of  which 

JOHANN  BERNARD  BASEDOW,  Goethe  has  left  us  an  ac- 
1723-1790  count.  The  principles  of 

the  teaching  given  in  this  establishment  were  very 
much  those  of  Comenius,  the  combination  of  words 
and  things. 

An  amusing  account  of  the  instruction  given  in 
this  school,  which  at  this  time  consisted  of  only 
thirteen  pupils,  has  come  down  to  us,  a  translation 
of  which  is  given  in  the  excellent  work  of  Mr.  Quick 
on  educational  reformers*.  The  little  ones  have 
gone  through  the  oddest  performances.  They  play 
at  "  word  of  command  ".  Eight  or  ten  stand  in  line 
like  soldiers,  and  Herr  Wolke  is  officer.  He  gives 
the  word  in  Latin,  and  they  must  do  whatever  he 
says.  For  instance  when  he  says  "  Claudite  ocutos  ", 
they  all  shut  their  eyes;  when  he  says  "  Circum- 
spicite  ",  they  look  about  them  ;  "  Imitamini  sutorem  ", 
they  draw  their  waxed  thread  like  cobblers.  Herr 
Wolke  gives  a  thousand  different  commands  in  the 
drollest  fashion. 

Another  game,  "the  hiding  game",  may  also  be 
described.  Some  one  writes  a  name  and  hides  it 

Pp.  193-197  of  the  Reading  Circle  edition,  Syracuse,  X.  V. 


54  BASEDOW  S    PHILANTHROPIN 

from  the  children,  the  name  of  some  part  of  the  body, 
or  of  a  plant  or  animal,  or  metal,  and  the  children 
guess  what  it  is.  Whoever  guesses  right  gets  an 
apple  or  a  piece  of  cake;  one  of  the  visitors  wrote 
"  intestina  ",  and  told  the  children  it  was  part  of  the 
body.  Then  the  guessing  began  ;  one  guessed  caput, 
another  nasus,  another  os,  another  manus,  pcs,  digiti, 
pcctus,  and  so  forth  for  a  long  time,  but  one  of  them 
hits  it  at  last. 

Next  Herr  Wolke  wrote  the  name  of  a  beast  or 
quadruped,  then  came  the  guesses,  /<?<?,  ursus,  camelus, 
elephas,  and  so  on,  till  one  guessed  right  it  was  mus. 
Then  a  town  was  written,  and  they  guessed  Lisbon, 
Madrid,  Paris,  London,  till  a  child  won  with  St. 
Petersburg. 

They  had  another  game  which  was  this.  Herr 
Wolke  gave  the  command  in  Latin,  and  they  imitated 
the  noises  of  different  animals,  and  made  the  visitors 
laugh  till  they  were  tired.  They  roared  like  lions, 
crowed  like  cocks,  mewed  like  cats,  just  as  they 
were  bid. 

Yet  Kant  found  a  great  deal  to  praise  in  this  school, 
and  spoke  of  its  influence 
as  one  of  the  best  hopes  of 
the  future,  and  as  "  the  only 
school  where  the  teachers 
had  liberty  to  act  according 
to  their  own  methods  and 
schemes,  and  where  they 
were  in  free  communication 
both  among  themselves  and 
IMMANUEL  KANT,  1724-1804  with  all]  ,  learned  men 
throughout  Germany." 


PESTALOZZI  55 

A  more  successful  laborer  in  the  same  school  was 
Salzmann,  who  bought  the  property  of  Schnepfenthal, 
near  Gotha>  in  1784,  and  established  a  school  there, 
which  still  exists  as  a  flourishing  institution.  He 
gave  full  scope  to  the  doctrines  of  the  philanthropists  ; 
the  limits  of  learning  were  enlarged;  study  became 
a  pleasure  instead  of  a  pain  ;  scope  was  given  for 
healthy  exercise  ;  the  school  became  light,  airy,  and 
cheerful.  A  charge  of  superficiality  and  weakness 
was  brought  against  this  method  of  instruction  ;  but 
the  gratitude  which  our  generation  of  teachers  owes 
to  the  unbounded  love  and  faith  of  these  devoted 
men  cannot  be  denied  or  refused. 

The  end  of  the  i8th  century  saw  a  great  develop- 
ment given  to  classical  studies.  The  names  of  Cel- 
larius,  Gesner,  Ernesti,  and  Heyne  are  perhaps  more 
celebrated  as  scholars  than  as  schoolmasters.  To 
them  we  owe  the-  great  importance  attached  to  the 
study  of  the  classics,  both  on  the  Continent^and  in 
England.  They  brought  into  the  schools  the  phil- 
ology which  F.  A.  Wolfe  had  organized  for  the  uni- 
versities. 

Pestalozzi,  on  the  other  hand,  was  completely  and 
entirely  devoted  to  education.  His  greatest  merit 
is  that  he  set  an  example  of  absolute  self-abnegation  ; 
that  he  lived  with  his  pupils,  played,  starved,  and 
suffered  with  them  ;  and  clung  to  their  minds  and 
hearts  with  an  affectionate  sympathy  which  revealed 
to  him  every  minute  difference  of  character  and  dis- 
position. 

Pestalozzi  was  born  at  Zurich  in  1746.     His  father 


JOHANN  HEINKICH  PESTALOZZI,   1748-188? 


PESTALOZZI 


57 


RMenplatz,  Zurich.    The  middle  house  was  Pestalozzi's  birthplace. 

died  when  he  was  young,  and  he  was  brought  up  by 
his  mother.  His  earliest  years  were  spent  in  schemes 
for  improving  the  condition  of  the  people.  The 
death  of  his  friend  Bluntschli  turned  him  from  politi- 
cal schemes,  and  induced  him  to  devote  himself  to 
education.  He  married  at  23,  and  bought  a  piece  of 
waste  land  in  Aargau,  where  he  attempted  the  culti- 
vation of  madder.  Pestalozzi  knew  nothing  of  bus- 
iness, and  the  plan  failed.  Before  this  he  had  opened 
his  farm-house  as  a  school;  but  in  1780  he  had  to 
give  this  up  also. 

His.  first  book  published  at  this  time  was  The  Even- 
ing Hours  of  a  Hermit,  a  series  of  aphorisms  and 
reflections.  This  was  followed  by  his  masterpiece, 
Leonard  and  Gertrude,  an  account  of  the  gradual 


5o  PESTALOZZI  S    SCHOOL    AT    STANZ 

reformation,  first  of  a  household,  and  then  of  a  whole 
village,  by  the  efforts  of  a  good  arid  devoted  woman. 
It  was  read  with  avidity  in  Germany,  and  the  name 
of  Pestalozzi  was  rescued  from  obscurity.  His 
attempts  to  follow  up  his  first  literary  success  were 
failures. 

The  French  invasion  of  Switzerland  in  1798  brought 
into  relief  his  truly  heroic  character.  A  number  of 
children  were  left  in  Canton  Unterwalden  on  the 
shores  of  the  Lake  of  Luzerne  without  parents,  home, 


STANZ 

food,  or  shelter.  Pestalozzi  collected  a  number  of 
them  into  a  deserted  convent,  and  spent  his  energies 
in  reclaiming  them. 

"I    was,"    he    says,  "from    morning    till    evening, 
almost  alone  in  their  midst.     Everything  which  was 


60  PESTALOZZl's    SCHOOL    AT    STANZ 

done  for  their  body  or  soul  proceeded  from  my 
hand.  Every  assistance,  every  help  in  time  of  need, 
every  teaching  which  they  received  came  immediatly 
from  me.  My  hand  lay  in  their  hand,  my  eye  rested 
on  their  eye,  my  tears  flowed  with  theirs,  and  my 
laughter  accompanied  theirs.  They  were  out  of  the 
world,  they  were  out  of  Stanz  ;  they  were  with  me, 
and  I  was  with  them.  Their  soup  was  mine;  their 
drink  was  mine.  I  had  nothing;  I  had  no  house- 
keeper,  no  friend,  no  servants  around  me;  I  had 
them  alone.  Were  they  well  I  stood  in  their  midst  ; 
were  they  ill,  I  was  at  their  side.  I  slept  in  the 
middle  of  them.  I  was  the  last  who  went  to  bed  at 
night,  the  first  who  rose  in  the  morning.  Even  in 
bed  I  prayed  and  taught  with  them  until  they  were 
asleep, — they  wished  it  to  be  so."  Thus  he  passed 
the  winter;  but  in  June,  1799,  the  building  was 
required  by  the  French  for  a  hospital,  and  the  chil- 
dren were  dispersed. 

We  have  dwelt  especially  on  this  episode  of  Pesta- 
lozzi's  life,  because  in  this  devotion  lay  his  strength. 
In  1801  he  gave  an  exposition  of  his  ideas  on  educa- 
tion in  the  book  How  Gertrude  teaches  her  Children*. 
His  method  is  to  proceed  from  the  easier  to  the  more 
difficult — to  begin  with  observation,  to  pass  from 
observation  to  consciousness,  from  consciousness  to 
speech.  Then  come  measuring,  drawing,  writing, 
numbers,  and  so  reckoning. 

•How  Gertrude  teaches  her  Children  An  attempt  to  help  mothers  to 
teach  their  own  children,  and  an  account  of  the  method.  A  report  to  the 
Society  of  the  Friends  of  Education,  Burgdnrf,  by  Johann  Heinrich  Pesta- 
lozzi.  Translated  by  Lucy  E.  Holland  and  Frances  E.  Turner,  and  edited, 
with  introduction  and  notes,  by  Ebenezer  Cooke.  1:2:308,  $1.50.  Syracuse, 
N.  Y.,  C.  W.  Bardeen.  1894. 


AT    BURGDORF    AND    YVERDUN  6* 

In  1799  he  had  been  enabled  to  establish  a  school 


BURGDORF 

at  Burgdorf,  where  he  remained  till  1804.  In  1802, 
he  went  as  deputy  to  Paris,  and  did  his  best  to  inter- 
est Napoleon  in  a  scheme  of  national  education  ;  but 
the  great  conqueror  said  that  he  could  not  trouble 
himself  about  the  alphabet. 

In  1805  hfi  removed  to  Yverdun  on  the  Lake  of 
Neufchatel,  and  for  twenty  years  worked  steadily  at 
his  task.  He  was  visited  by  all  who  took  interest 
in  education — Talleyrand,  Capo  d'Istria,  and  Madame 
de  Stael.  He  was  praised  by  Wilhelm  von  Hum- 
boldt  and  by  Fichte.  His  pupils  included  Ramsauer, 
Delbruck,  Blochmann,  Carl  Ritter,  Froebel,  and 
Zeller. 


62 


PESTALOZZl's    SCHOOL    AT    YVERDUN 


V VERDUN 

About  1815  dissensensions  broke  out  among  the 
teachers  of  the  school,  and 
Pestalozzi's  last  ten  years 
were  chequered  by  weari- 
ness and  sorrow.  In  1825 
he  retired  to  Neuhof,  the 
home  of  his  youth;  and 
after  writing  the  adventures 
of  his  life,  and  his  last  work, 
the  Swan's  Song,  he  died  in 
1827. 

As   he    said   himself,  the 
real  work  of  his  life  did  not 
lie  in  Burgdorf  or  in  Yverdun,  the  productsVather 


JOHANN  GOTTLIEB  FICHTE 
1762-1814 


'O4  PESTALOZZI  S    WORK 

of  his  weakness  than  of  his  strength.  It  lay  in  the 
principles  of  education  which  he  practised,  the  devel- 
opment of  his  observation,  the  training  of  the  whole 
man,  the  sympathetic  application  of  the  teacher 
to  the  taught,  of  which  he  left  an  example  in  his  six 
months'  labors  at  Stanz.  He  showed  what  truth 
there  was  in  the  principles  of  Comenius  and  Rous- 
seau, in  the  union  of  training  with  information,  and 
the  submissive  following  of  nature;  he  has  had  the 


The  Schoolliouse  at  Birr,  with  Pestalozzi's  Memorial 

deepest  effect  on  all  branches  of  education  since 
his  time,  and  his  influence  is  far  from  being  ex- 
hausted. \ 


Statue  In  Pestalozzi  Square,  Yverdun.    Inscription :  -  To  Pesta- 

lozzi,  1746-1827.    This  monument  was  erected  by 

popular  subscription  in  1890." 


66 


GERMAN     WRITERS 


ARTHUR  SCHOPENHAUER, 

1788-1860 


The  Emile  of  Rousseau  was  the  point  of  departure 
for  an  awakened  interest  in 
educational  theories  which 
has  continued  unto  the 
present  day.  Few  thinkers 
of  eminence  during  the 
last  hundred  years  have 
failed  to  offer  their  contri- 
butions more  or  less  direct- 
ly on  this  subject.  Poets 
like  Richter,  Herder  and 
Goethe,  philosophers  such 
as  Kant,  Fichte,  Hegel,  Schleiermacher  and  Schopen- 
hauer, psychologists  such  as  Herbart  and  Beneke, 
have  left  directions  for  our  guidance. 

Indeed,  during  this  time  the  science  of  education, 
or  paedagogics,  as  the  Ger- 
mans call  it,  may  have  been 
said  to  have  come  into  ex- 
istence. It  has  attracted 
but  little  attention  in  Eng- 
land ;s  but  it  is  an  impor- 
tant subject  of  study  at  all 
German  universities,  and 
we  may  hope  that  the  ex- 

JOHANN  PEIBDR.CH  HERBART  amPle   SiVCn    ^    the    CStab- 

1776-1841  lishment  of  chairs  of  educa- 

tion in  the  Scotch  universities  may  soon  be  followed 
by  the  other  great  centres  of  instruction  in  Great 
Britain. 


JEAN    PAUL,    AND    GOETHE 


67 


JOHANN  PAUL  FRIEDRICH 
RICHTER,  1763-1825 


Jean  Paul  called  his  book  Levana  after  the  Roman 
goddess  to  whom  the  father 
dedicated  his  new-born 
child,  in  token  that  he  in- 
tended to  rear  it  to  man- 
hood. He  lays  great  stress 
on  the  preservation  of  indi- 
viduality of  character,  a 
merit  which  he  possessed 
himself  in  so  high  a  degree. 
The  second  part  of  Wil- 
helm  Meister  is  in  the  main 
a  treatise  upon  education.  The  essays  of  Carlyle 
have  made  us  familiar  with  the  mysteries  of  the 
paedagogic  province,  the  solemn  gestures  of  the 
three  reverences,  the  long  cloisters  which  contain 
the  history  of  God's  dealings  with  the  human  race. 
The  most  characteristic  passage  is  that  which  de- 
scribes the  father's  return 
to  the  country  of  educa- 
tion after  a  year's  absence. 
As  he  is  riding  aloner 
wondering  in  what  guise 
he  will  meet  his  son,  a 
multitude  of  horses  rush 
by  at  full  gallop.  "The 
BI^X  monstrous  hurly-burly 

whirls  past  the  wanderer; 

JOHANN  WOLFGANG  VON  GOETHE  a  ^T  ^OV  among  tne  keep- 

1749-1832  ers  looks   at  him   in  sur- 

prise, pulls  in,  leaps  down,  and  embraces  his  father." 
He  then  learns  that  an  agricultural  life  had  not  suited 
his  son,  that  the  superiors  had  discovered  that  he 


68 


JACOTOT 


was  fond  of  animals,  and  had  set  him  to  that  occupa- 
tion for  which  nature  had  destined  him. 

The  system  of  Jacotot  has  aroused  great  interest 
in  this  country.  Its  author 
was  born  at  Dijon  in  1770. 
In  1815  he  retired  to  Lou- 
vain  and  became  professor 
there,  and  director  of  the 
Belgian  military  school. 
He  died  in  1840.  H  i  s 
method  of  teaching  is  based 
on  three  principles  : 

i.  All  men  have  an  equal 
JOSEPH  JACOTOT,  1770-1840     intelligence. 

2.  Every  man  has  received  from   God  the  faculty 
of  being  able  to  instruct  himself. 

3.  Every  thing  is  in  every  thing. 

The  first  of  these  principles  is  certainly  wrong, 
although  Jacotot  tried  to  explain  it  by  asserting  that, 
although  men  had  the  same  intelligence,  they  differed 
widely  in  the  will  to  make  use  of  it.  Still  it  is  im- 
portant to  assert  that  nearly  all  men  are  capable  of 
receiving  some  intellectual  education,  provided  the 
studies  to  which  they  are  directed  are  wide  enough 
to  engage  their  faculties,  and  the  means  taken  to 
interest  them  are  sufficiently  ingenious.  The  second 
principle  lays  down  that  it  is  more  necessary  to  stim- 
ulate the  pupil  to  learn  for  himself,  than  to  teach 
him  didactically. 

The  third  principle  explains  the  process  which 
Jacotot  adopted.  To  one  learning  a  language  for 
the  first  time  he  would  give  a  short  passage  of  a  few 
lines,  and  encourage  the  pupil  to  study  first  the 
words,  then  the  letters,  then  the  grammar,  then  the 


THE    MONITORIAL^SYSTEM  69 

full  meaning  of  the  expressions,  until  by  iteration 
and  accretion  a  single  paragraph  took  the  place  of 
an  entire  literature.  Much^may  be  effected  by  this 
method  in  the  hands  of  a  skilful  teacher,  but  a  char- 
latan might  make  it  an  excuse  for  ignorance  and 
neglect. 

Among  those  who  have^improved  the  methods  of 

teaching,  we  must  mention 
Bell  and  Lancaster,  the 
joint  discoverers  of  the 
method  of  mutual  instruc- 
tion, which,  if  it  has  not 
effected  everything  which 
its  founders  expected  of  it, 
has  produced  the  system  of 
pupil-teachers  which  is 
common  in  our  schools. 
ANDREW  BELL,  1753-1832  Froebel  also  deserves  an 
honorable  place  as  the  founder  of  the  Kindergarten,  a 

means    of    teaching    young 
lSi|.  children     by    playing     and 

Bi-  ML  amusement.  His  plans, 
H^  which  have  a  far  wider  sig- 
nificance than  this  limited 
development  of  them,  are 
likely  to  be  fruitful  of  re- 
sults to  future  workers. 

The  last  English  writers 
on  education  are  Mr.  Her- 
JOSEPH  LANCASTER,  ms-isss  bert  Spencer  and  Mr.  Alex- 

ander  Bain,  the  study  of  whose  writings  will  land  us 
in  those  regions  of  pedagogics  which  have  been  most 
recently  explored. 


3  HERBERT    SPENCER 

We  need  not  follow  Mr.  Spencer  into  his  defence 
of  science  as  the  worthiest 
object  of  study,  or  in  his 
rules  for  moral  and  physi- 
cal training,  except  to  say 
they  are  sound  and  practi- 
cal. In  writing  of  intel- 
lectual education,  he  insists 
that  we  shall  attain  the  best 
results  by  closely  studying 
the  development  of  the 

HERBERT  SPENCER,  1820-        mind>     and     availing      our. 

selves  of  the  whole  amount  of  force  which  nature 
puts  at  our  disposal.  The  mind  of  every  being  is 
naturally  active  and  vigorous,  indeed  it  is  never  at 
rest.  But  for  its  healthy  growth  it  must  have  some- 
thing to  work  upon,  and,  therefore,  the  teacher  must 
watch  its  movements  with  the  most  sympathetic 
care,  in  order  to  supply  exactly  that  food  which  it 
requires  at  any  particular  time.  In  this  way  a  much 
larger  cycle  of  attainments  can  be  compassed  than 
by  the  adoption  of  any  programme  or  curriculum, 
however  carefully  drawn  up. 

It  is  no  good  to  teach  what  is  not  remembered; 
the  strength  of  memory  depends  on  attention,  and 
attention  depends  upon  interest.  To  teach  without 
interest  is  to  work  like  Sisyphus  and  the  Danaides. 
Arouse  interest  if  you  can,  rather  by  high  means 
than  by  low  means.  But  it  is  a  saving  of  power  to 
make  use  of  interest  which  you  have  already  exist- 
ing, and  which,  unless  dried  up  or  distorted  by  inju- 
dicious violence,  will  naturally  lead  the  mind  into 
all  the  knowledge  which  it  is  capable  of  receiving. 


ALEXANDER    BAIN  Jl 

Therefore,  never  from  the  first  force  a  child's  atten- 
tion ;  leave  off  a  study  the  moment  it  becomes  weari- 
some, never  let  a  child  do  what  it  does  not  like,  only 
take  care  that  when  its  liking  is  in  activity  a  choice 
of  good  as  well  as  evil  shall  be  given  to  it. 

Mr.  Bain's  writings  on  education,  which  are  con- 
tained in  some  articles  in  the  Fortnightly  Review,  and 
in  two  articles  in  Afind(Nos.  v.  and  vii.)  are  extremely 
valuable.  Perhaps  the  rqpst  interesting  part  of  them 
consists  in  his  showing  how  what  may  be  called  the 
4€ correlation  of  forces  in  man  "  helps  us  to  a  right 
education.  From  this  we  learn  that  emotion  may  be 
transformed  into  intellect,  that  sensation  may  exhaust 
the  brain  as  much  as  thought,  and  we  may  infer  that 
the  chief  duty  of  the  schoolmaster  is  to  stimulate  the 
powers  of  each  brain  under  his  charge  to  the  fullest 
activity,  and  to  apportion  them  in  that  ratio  which 
will  best  conduce  to  the  most  complete  and  harmon- 
ious development  of  the  individual. 

It  seems  to  follow  from  this  sketch  of  the  history 
of  education  that,  in  spite  of  the  great  advances  which 
have  been  made  of  late  years,  the  science  of  educa- 
tion is  still  far  in  advance  of  the  art.  Schoolmasters 
are  still  spending  their  best  energies  in  teaching  sub- 
jects which  have  been  universally  condemned  by 
educational  reformers  for  the  last  two  hundred  years. 
The  education  of  every  public  school  is  a  farrago  of 
rules,  principles,  and  customs  derived  from  every  age 
of  teaching,  from  the  most  modern  to  the  most  re- 
mote. It  is  plain  that  the  science  and  art  of  teach- 
ing will  never  be  established  on  a  firm  basis  until  it 
is  organized  on  the  model  of  the  sister  art  of  medi- 
cine. We  must  pursue  the  patient  methods  of 
induction  by  which  other  sciences  have  reached  the 


72  HISTORIES    OF    EDUCATION 

stature  of  maturity  ;  we  must  discover  some  means 
of  registering  and  tabulating  results  ;  we  must  invent 
a  phraseology  and  nomenclature  which  will  enable 
results  to  be  accurately  recorded ;  we  must  place 
education  in  its  proper  position  among  the  sciences 
of  observation.  A  philosopher  who  should  succeed 
in  doing  this  would  be  venerated  by  future  ages  as 
the  creator  of  the  art  of  teaching. 

It  only  remains  now  to  give  some  account  of  the 
very  large  literature  of  the*subject. 

The  history  of  education  was  not  investigated  till 
the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  and  since  then 
little  original  research  has  been  made' except  by 
Germans.  Whilst  acknowledging  our  great  obliga- 
tions to  the  German  historians,  we  cannot  but  regret 
that  all  the  investigations  have  belonged  to  the  same 
nation.  For  instance,  one  of  the  best  treatises  on 
education  written  in  the  i6th  century  is  Mulcaster's 
Positions,  which  has  never  been  reprinted,  and  is  now 
a  literary  curiosity. 

Mangelsdorf  and  Ruhkopf  attempted  histories  of 
education  at  the  end  of  the 
last  century,  but  the  first 
work  of  note  was  F.  H.  Ch. 
Schwarz's  Geschichtc  d.  Er- 
ziehung  (1813).  A.  H.  Nie- 
meyer,  a  very  influential 
writer,  was  one  of  the  first 
to  insist  on  the  importance 
of  making  use  of  all  that 
has  been  handed  down  to 
AUGUST  HERMANN  NiEMEYER,  us,  and  with  this  practical 
1754-1828  object  in  view  he  has  given 

us  an  Ueberblickderallgemeinen  Geschichte  der  Er ziehung. 


VON    RAUMER    AND    SCHMIDT 


Other  writers  followed  ;  but  from  the  time  of  its 
appearance  till  within  the 
last  few  years,  by  far  the 
most  readable  and  the  most 
read  work  on  the  history  of 
education  was  that  of  Karl 
von  Raumer.  Raumer,  how- 
ever, is  too  chatty  and  too 
religious  to  pass  for  "  wis- 
senschaftlich  ",  and  the  stand- 
'^^r<  ard  history  is  now  that  of 

KARL  GEORG  VON  RAUMER 

1783-1865  Karl  Schmidt.  The  Roman 

Catholics  have  not  been  content  to  adopt  the  works 
of  Protestants,  but  have  histories  of  their  own. 
These  are  the  very  pleasing  sketches  of  L.  Kellner 
and  the  somewhat  larger  history  by  Stoeckl. 

When  we  come  to  writers  who  have  produced 
sketches  or  shorter  histories,  we  find  the  list  in  Ger- 
many a  very  long  one.  Among  the  best  books  of 
this  kind  are  Fried.  Dittes's  Geschichte  and  Drose's 
Padagogischc  Characterbildcr.  An  account  of  this  lit- 
erature will  be  found  in  J.  Chr.  G.  Schurmann's 
paper  among  the  Padagogische  Studien,  edited  by  Dr. 
Reiss. 

For  biographies  the  paedagogic  cyclopaedias  may  be 
consulted,  of  which  the  first  is  the  Encyclopadie  dcs 
gcsammten  Erzichungswescns  of  K.  A.  Schmid,  a  great 
work  in  ii  or  12  vols.  not  yet  completed,  although 
the  second  edition  of  the  early  vols.  is  already  an- 
nounced. The  Roman  Catholics  have  also  begun  a 


74  HISTORIES    OF    EDUCATION 

large  encyclopaedia  edited  by  Rolfus  and  Pfister. 
No  similar  work  has  been  published  in  France,  but 
a  Cyclopedia  of  Education  in  one  volume  has  lately 
been  issued  in  New  York  (Steiger, — the  editors  are 
Kiddle  and  Schem),  and  in  this  there  are  articles  by 
English  as  well  as  American  writers*.  In  French  the 
Esquisse  d'un  systems  complet  cT  Education,  by  Th.  Fritz 
{Strasburg,  1841),  has  a  sketch  of  the  history,  which 
as  a  sketch  is  worth  notice.  Jules  Paroz  has  written 
a  useful  little  Histoire  which  would  have  been  more 
valuable  if  it  had  been  longer. 

In  English,  though  we  have  no  investigators  of  the 
history  of  education,  we  have  a  fairly  large  literature 
on  the  subject,  but  it  belongs  almost  exclusively  to 
the  United  States.  The  great  work  of  Henry  Bar- 
nard, the  American  Journal 
of  Education,  in  25  vols.,  has 
valuable  papers  on  almost 
every  part  of  our  subject, 
many  of  them  translated 
from  the  German,  but  there 
are  also  original  papers  on 
our  old  English  educational 
writers  and  extracts  from 
their  works.  This  is  by  far 
HENRY  BARNARD,  i8ii-  the  most  valuable  work  in 
our  language  on  the  history  of  education. 

*  A  more  recent  publication  is  *' Sonnenschein's  Cyclopaedia  of  Educa- 
tion :  a  handbook  on  all  subjects  connected  with  education  (its  history, 
theory,  and  practice)  comprising  articles  by  eminent  educational  specialists. 
The  whole  arranged  and  edited  by  Alfred  Ewen  Fletcher.'1  8:560,  $3.75. 
•Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  C.  W.  Bardeen,  1889. 


BARNARD,    QUICK,    PAYNE  75 

The  small  volumes  published  in  America  with  the 
title  of  "History  of  Educa- 
tion "  do  not  deserve  notice. 
In  England  may  be  men- 
tioned the  article  on  educa- 
tion by  Mr.  James  Mill,  pub- 
lished in  the  early  editions  of 
the  Encyclopedia  Britannica, 
and  R.  H.  Quick's  most  ex- 
cellent Essays  on  Educational 
QUICK,  Reformers,  published  in 
1831-1891  1868*.  Since  then  Mr. 

Leitch  of  Glasgow  has  issued  a  volume  called  Prac- 
tical Educationists,  which  deals  with  English  and 
Scotch  reformers,  as  well  as  with  Comenius  and 
Pestalozzi.  Now  that  professorships  of  education 
have  been  established  we  may  hope  for  some  original 
research.  The  first  professor  appointed  was  the  late 
Joseph  Payne,  a  name  well-known  to  those  among 
us  who  have  studied  the  theory  of  education.  The 
professorship  was  started  by  the  College  of  Precep- 
tors. At  Edinburgh  and  at  St.  Andrews  professors 
have  since  been  elected  by  the  Bell  Trustees. 

Valuable  reports  as  to  the  state  of  education  in 
the  various  countries  that  possess  a  national  system 
were  presented  to  the  English  schools  Inquiry  Com- 
mission in  1867  and  1868,  by  inspectors  specially 

"Essays  on  Educational  Reformers  by  Robert  Hebert  Quick.  Reading 
Circle  Edition,  with  Notes  and  Illustrations.  16:430,  $1.00.  Syracuse,  N.  Y., 
1896.  C.  W.  Bardeen. 


76 


REPORTS    ON    EDUCATION 


appointed  to  investigate  the  subject.  The  reports 

on  the  Common  School 
System  of  the  United  States 
and  Canada,  by  the  Rev. 
James  Fraser,  on  the  Burgh 
Schools  in  Scotland  by  D. 
R.  Fearon,  and  on  Second- 
ary Education  in  France, 
Germany,  Switzerland  and 
Italy,  by  Matthew  Arnold, 
are  included  in  Parliament- 
MATTHEW  ARNOLD,  1822-1895  ary  Papers  [3857],  1867, 

and  [3966  v.],  1868.  (o.  B.) 


NOTES  AND  REFERENCES 


GENERAL  SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION 

Schmidt  and  Raumer  are  the  great  authorities  on 
the  history  of  education.  Copious  translations  from 
Raumer  are  contained  in  Barnard's  American  Jour- 
nal of  Education,  and  the  portions  relating  to  Ger- 
man education  are  collected  in  Barnard's  German 
Teachers  and  Educators. 

Paroz's  Histoire  Universelle  is  elegantly  written, 
and  contains,  within  a  moderate  compass,  an  admir- 
able summary  of  educational  history. 

For  the  study  of  special  topics,  Mr.  Quick's  Edu- 
cational Reformer -j cannot  be  too  highly  recommended. 
Mr.  Leitch  writes  with  much  less  critical  discern- 
ment, and  some  of  his  subjects  are  of  minor  impor- 
tance, but  his  work  may  be  read  with  great  profit. 

As  a  critical  history  of  educational  doctrines,  the 
work  of  Compayre  is  of  incomparable  value.  Though 
he  is  occupied  chiefly  with  French  pedagogy,  he  dis- 
cusses almost  every  aspect  of  the  educational  prob- 
lem, and  always  with  great  penetration  and  clear- 
ness. 

Williams's  History  of  Modern  Education  is  the  most 
recent  work,  and  particularly  adapted  to  American 
schools. 

(77) 


78  APPENDIX 

THE  REFORM  IN  EDUCATION 

The  Reformation  marks  the  further  limit  of  the 
modern  period  of  educational  history;  and  these  be- 
ginnings of  educational  reform  deserve  very  careful 
study.  The  compilation  of  Souquet,  and  particular- 
ly his  introduction,  will  be  found  very  helpful. 
Schmidt,  Raumer,  Compayre,  and  Paroz  will  supply 
an  abundance  of  material  bearing  on  this  topic.  For 
a  study  of  the  recognized  educational  reformers,  the 
works  of  Mr.  Quick  and  Mr.  Barnard  are  invaluable. 

ROUSSEAU  AND  HIS  EMILE 

With  the  progress  of  educational  science,  the  in- 
fluence of  Rousseau  is  perceptibly  and  steadily 
growing,  and  a  careful  study  of  the  Emile  is  becom- 
ing imperative.  This  study  may  now  be  conven- 
iently prosecuted  at  first  hand  through  the  compila- 
tion just  made  by  Souquet.  The  fairest  estimate  of 
Rousseau  that  I  have  yet  seen,  is  contained  in  the 
second  volume  of  Compayre. 

JOSEPH  PAYNE 

By  far  the  most  valuable  of  recent  contributions 
to  educational  literature  from  English  sources,  is 
Joseph  Payne's  Lectures,  edited  by  his  son,  and  con- 
taining an  introduction  by  Mr.  Quick.  Mr.  Payne 
was  a  disciple  of  Jacotot,  and  in  this  volume  he 
gives  an  admirable  exposition  of  his  master's  sys- 
tem. Outside  of  England,  the  doctrines  of  Jacotot 
enjoy  but  little  consideration;  but  there  are  very 
few  modern  writers  on  education  who  are  more 
worthy  of  serious  study.  Each  of  his  paradoxes  em- 
bodies a  doctrine  worth  the  knowing. 


NOTES  AND  REFERENCES  79 

THE  OLD  EDUCATION  AND  THE  NEW 
In  studying  the  later  developments  of  educational 
thought,  it  is  essential  to  keep  in  mind  the  fact  that 
they  embody  a  reaction  against  antagonistic  doc- 
trines; and  the  further  fact  that  "the  suppression  of 
an  error  is  commonly  followed  by  the  temporary  as- 
cendancy of  a  contrary  one  ".  There  are  sharp 
points  of  contrast  between  the  old  education  and  the 
new.  Each  has  a  measure  of  truth  and  a  measure  of 
error;  each  is  right  in  what  it  admits  and  wrong  in 
what  it  denies ;  and  so  each  is  in  a  great  degree  the 
complement  of  the  other.  The  truth  will  be  found 
to  lie  somewhere  between  the  two  extremes. 

PESTALOZZI 

No  just  and  adequate  estimate  of  Pestalozzi's  in- 
fluence can  be  formed  unless  his  doctrines  are  con- 
trasted with  those  that  he  sought  to  supplant.  We 
are  living  in  the  midst  of  transformations  that  have 
been  wrought  through  the  influence  of  Pestalozzian- 
ism ;  and  so  the  present  does  not  furnish  the  criteria 
by  which  to  estimate  the  importance  of  this  innova- 
tion in  educational  thought. 

EVERY  NEW  PHASE  IN  EDUCATION  EMBODIES 
AN   IDEA. 

No  new  movement  in  education  can  be  adequately 
interpreted  without  taking  into  account  the  cognate 
phases  of  thought,  social,  political,  philosophical, 
and  religious,  with  which  it  co-existed.  Some  dom- 
inant idea  will  be  found  to  underlie  every  system  of 
educational  doctrine.  When  the  principle  of  AU- 
THORITY was  dominant  in  church  and  state,  it  was 


So  APPENDIX 

also  dominant  in  the  schools,  and  prescribed  its 
methods  of  discipline  and  of  instruction;  and  the 
decline  of  authority  in  church  and  state  has  induced 
a  corresponding  change  in  the  methods  of  the  school. 
The  philosophical  idea  that  is  dominant  in  the  new 
education  is  that  of  DEVELOPMENT;  and  in  this 
country  when  the  professional  teacher  must  count 
with  his  constituents,  there  is  the  concurrent  and 
modifying  idea  of  UTILITY. 

NEED  OF  A  GENERAL  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATIONAL 
DOCTRINES 

The  construction  of  a  general  history  of  education, 
for  the  express  purpose  of  tracing  the  rise  and  prog- 
ress of  all  the  marked  phases  of  educational  thought, 
and  characterized  by  the  critical  discernment  that 
gives  such  charm  and  value  to  the  work  of  Corn- 
payre,  is  a  thing  greatly  to  be  desired  at  this  time 
when  questions  of  school  policy  are  beginning  to  be 
discussed  on  a  scientific  basis. 

BUISSON'S  Dictiannaire  de  la  Pedagogic 

Buisson's  Dictionnare  de  la  Pedagogic  is  on  all  ac- 
counts the  most  valuable  book  of  reference  that  can 
be  commended  to  the  professional  teacher.  Scarcely 
any  other  book  will  be  required  to  supplement  this 
SHORT  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION,  so  complete  is  its  treat- 
ment of  historical  and  biographical  subjects. 

In  English,  the  latest  general  compilation  is  Son- 
nenschein's  Cyclopaedia  of  Education,  the  American 
edition  of  which  is  published  by  C.  W.  Bardeen, 
Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


C  O  M  E  N  I  U  S 


COMENIUS 


COMPARATIVE    TABLE    OF    DATES 


Erasmus 1467-1536         Rousseau 1712-1778 

Luther 1483-154(5         Diderot 1713-1784 

Sturm 1507-1589         Condillac 1715-1780 

Ascbam 1515-1568         Basedow 1723-1790 

Ramus. 1515-1572         Kant 1724-1804 

Montaigne 1533-1592         Pesialozzi 1746-1827 

Bacon 1561-1626        Jacotot 1770-1840 

Ratke 1571-1635         Fellenberg 1771-1844 

COMENIUS   ".1592-1671         Froebel  1782-1852 

Descartes 1596-1650         Diesterweg 1790-1866 

Milton 1608-1674        Cousin 1792-1867 

Locke. . .    1632-1704        Beneke 1798-1856 

Francke 1663-1727         Spencer 1820  

OUTLINE  BIOGRAPHY 


1592.  Born  at  Nivnitz,  a  village  of  Moravia,  on  the 
confines  of  Hungary  ;  early  an  orphan  ;  began, 
his  education  at  the  age  of  16. 

1610.  Went  to  the  Universities  of  Herborn  and  Hei- 
delberg; then  travelled  for  ten  years  in  Hol- 
land and  perhaps  in  England. 

1614.    Returned  to  Bohemia  and  became  director  of 
the  school  in  Prerau,  where  he  published  his. 
first  work,  Grammaticae  Facilioris  Pracccpta. 
(83) 


84  APPENDIX 

1618.  Became  pastor  of  the  Bohemian  Brethren  in 
Fulneck. 

1621.  By  the  sack  of  Fulneck,  lost  his  property, 
books,  and  MS.;  and  for  several  years  was  a 
refugee  from  religious  persecution. 

1627.  By  the  Edict  of  July  31,  followed  the  Mora- 
vians into  permanent  banishment  and  took 
refuge  in  Lissa  Poland,  where  he  wrote  his 
Janua  Linguarum  Reserata. 

1641.  Went  to  London   by  the   invitation  of  Parlia- 
ment, at  the.  instance  of  Samuel  Hartlib  (the 
friend  of  Milton),  who,  in  1631,  had  published 
at  Oxford  a  part  of  the  Didactica  Magna. 

1642.  Went  on  an  educational  mission  into  Sweden, 
and  thence  to  Elbing,  Prussia. 

1648.  Made  Bishop  of  the  Moravians  and  took  up 
his  residence  again  in  Lissa. 

1650.  Went  to  Patak,  Hungary,  to  establish  a  model 
school  on  the  principles  of  his  Pansophia. 
While  in  Patak  he  wrote  the  most  popular  of 
his  works,  the  Or  bis  Sensualium  P  ictus.  On 
leaving  Patak  he  returned  to  Lissa. 

1656.    On  the  burning  of  Lissa  by  the  Polish  Catho- 
lics, took  refuge  in  Amsterdam. 
1671.    November  15,  died  at  Amsterdam. 

APPRECIATION 


"The  system  which  he  sketched  will  be  found  to 
foreshadow  the  education  of  the  future." 


COMENIUS  85 

u  He  was  one  of  the  first  advocates  of  the  teaching 
of  science  in  schools." 

"  His  kindness,  gentleness,  and  sympathy,  make 
him  the  forerunner  of  Pestalozzi." — EncycL  Brit. 

"  Comenius  founded  nothing  durable  and  distinc- 
tive ;  he  was  but  an  admirable  precursor.  His  work 
had  to  be  again  taken  up,  continued  and  perfected, 
by  the  educators  of  the  following  century,  the  most 
of  whom  did  not  know  him — so  soon  was  he  forgot- 
ten— and  who  followed  in  his  foot-steps,  like  Rous- 
seau and  Pestalozzi,  without  suspecting  it." — Buis- 
son. 

"A  Protestant  grammarian  and  theologian;  was 
a  mad-man,  but  from  this  mad  man  we  have  a  book 
entitled  Janua  Linguarum  Reserata,  which  was  trans- 
lated not  only  into  twelve  European  languages,  but 
also  into  the  principal  languages  of  Asia." — Enc* 
Mvthodiqiie. 

"  Of  boundless  generosity  and  intelligence,  he 
embraced  all  knowledge  and  every  nationality. 
Through  every  country — Poland,  Hungary,  Sweden, 
England,  Holland — he  went  teaching,  first  Peace, 
and  then  the  means  of  peace — Universal  Fraternity. 
He  wrote  a  hundred  works,  taught  in  a  hundred 
cities.  Sooner  or  later,  the  scattered  members  of 
this  great  man,  that  he  left  upon  every  route,  will  be 
reunited. " — Michelet. 

"  As  a  school  reformer  he  was  the  forerunner  of 
Rousseau,  Basedow,  and  Pestalozzi,  suggested  a 
mode  of  instruction  which  renders  learning  attract- 
ive to  children  by  pictures  and  illustrations,  and 


86  APPENDIX 

wrote  the  first  pictorial   school-book." — New  Amer. 
Cycl. 

"  Comenius  is  a  grand  and  venerable  figure  of 
sorrow.  Wandering,  persecuted,  and  homeless, 
during  the  terrible  and  desolating  thirty  years'  war, 
he  never  despaired  ;  but  with  enduring  and  faithful 
truth,  labored  unweariedly  to  prepare  youth,  by  a 
better  education,  for  a  better  future.  His  undes- 
pairing  aspirations  seem  to  have  lifted  up,  in  a  large 
part  of  Europe,  many  good  men,  prostrated  by  the 
terrors  of  the  times,  and  to  have  inspired  them  with 
the  hope  that  by  a  pious  and  wise  system  of  educa- 
tion, there  would  be  reared  up  a  race  of  men  more 
pleasing  to  God." — Raitmcr. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


SOURCES    OF    INFORMATION 

1.  Cyclopaedia    of    Education.     C.     W.    Bardeen, 
Syracuse,  1889. 

2.  Buisson's    Dictionnaire  de  Pedagogic   et    d'ln- 
struction  Primaire.     ire  Partie.     Paris,  1887. 

3.  Quick's     Essays    on    Educational    Reformers, 
Chapter  VII.     Syracuse,  1896. 

4.  Histoire  Critique  des  Doctrines  de  L'Education 
en  France,     Par  G.  Compayre.     Paris,   1879.     Tome 
Premier,  pp.  256-263. 

;.  Michelet.     Nos  Fils.     Paris,  1877. 

6.  Jules  Paroz.     Histoire  Universelle  de  la  Peda- 
gogic.    Paris,  pp.  203-216. 

7.  Karl, Schmidt,  Geschichte  der  Piidagogik.     Co- 
then.     1873-1876.     pp.  366-398,  Dritter  Band. 

8.  Karl  von  Raumer,  Geschichte    der  Padagogik, 
Stuttgart.     1857.    .pp.  48-100,  Zweiter  Theil. 

9.  Barnard's  American  Journal  of  Education.  Vol. 
V.,  pp.  257-298.     [A    translation    of   No.    8.]     Also 
Vol.  VI,  p.  585.     [On  the  Qrbis  Pictus^ 

10.  Bayle's    Historical    and    Critical    Dictionary. 
London,  1735. 

(87) 


88  APPENDIX 

11.  Carpzov.      Religionsuntersuchung    der    Boh- 
mischen  und  Mahrischen  Briider. 

12.  Gindely.     Ueber   des  J.  A.  Comenius'    Leben 
und  Wirksamkeit  in  der  Fremde.     (In  the  proceed- 
ings of  the  Vienna  Academy    of  Science.     Vienna, 

1855.) 

13.  Leutbecher.     Johann    Amos  Comenius,  Lehr- 
kunst.     Leipzig,  1853. 

14.  Dr.    Eugen    Pappenheim.      Amos    Comenius, 
der  Begriinder  der  neuen  Padagogik.     Berlin,  1871. 

15.  K.  A.  Schmid.     Padagogisches  Handbuch  fur 
Schule  und  Haus.     Gotha,  1877. 

16.  Seyfifarth,  L.  W.     J.  A.  Comenius,  nach  seinem 
Leben  und  seiner  padagogischen  Bedeutung.     Leip- 
zig, 1871. 

17.  Beitrage  zur  Padagogik.    Ueber  die  historische 
Darstellung    der    padagogischen   Jdeen    mit   beson- 
derer  Beziehungauf  Rousseau  und  Comenius.     Low- 
enberg,  1875. 

18.  Comenius,    Amos,    Die    Mutterschule.      Aufs 
Neue  hrsg.  v.  Herm.  Schroter.     Weissenfels,  1864. 

19.  Hoffmeister,  Herm.     Comenius  und  Pestalozzi 
als    Begriinder    der    Volksschule,    wissenschaftlich 
dargestellt,  8vo.     Berlin,  1877. 

20.  Laurie,  S.  S      John  Amos  Gomenius,  his  Life 
and  Work,  i6mo.     Syracuse,  1892. 

21.  Butler,  Nicholas  Murray.     The  Place  of  Com- 
enius   in    the    History    of   Education,   i6mo.     Syra- 
cuse, 1892. 

22.  Maxwell,  W.  H.     The  Text-Books  of  Comen- 
ius, 8vo.     Syracuse,  1892. 


COMENIUS  $9 

NOTE. — "  \Ve  are  assured  that  France  will  soon 
have  two  works  upon  Comenius,  which,  we  hope,  will 
be  only  a  prelude  10  important  studies  relating  to 
this  eminent  educator;  one  by  M.  Rieder  and  the 
other  by  M.  Diog.  Bertrand." — Die.  de  Pedag. 


II 

WORKS 

1.  Didactica  Opera   Omnia  ab  anno   1627  ad  1657 
continuata.     Amstelodamus,  Chr.  Conradus  et  Gabr. 
a    Roy,    1657.     4  part,  in-fol.,  avec    port.,  482,    462, 
1064  et  110  col. — Brunei. 

This  edition  contains  the  collected  works  of  Co- 
menius, edited  by  himself,  and  published  by  the 
munificence  of  his  Patron,  Lorenzo  de  Geer. 

2.  Comenius,  Johann  Amos.     Ausgewiihlte  Schrif- 
ten,  Mutterschule,  Pansophia,   Pangnosie,  etc.     Ue- 
bersetzt  und   mit   Erliiuterungen  versehen  von    Ju. 
Beeger  und  Johann   Leutbecher,  8vo.     Leipzig. 

3.  Comenius's   (John   Amos)  Visible  World  ;  or  a 
Nomenclature  and  Pictures,  of  all  the  chief  things 
that  are  in  the  World,  etc.,  illustrated  with  150  curi- 
ous rude  woodcuts,  i2mo.      1777.  - 

4.  The  Orbis  Pictus  of  John  Amos  Comenius,  8vo. 
Syracuse,  1887. 

5.  Karl  Richter.     Padagogische  Bibliothek.     Eine 
Sammlung  der  wichtigsten  padagogischen  Schriften 
alter  und  neuerer  Zeit.     Leipzig. 

Volume    third   contains  the   Didactica   Magna,  an 


90  APPENDIX 

appreciation  of  it,   a  Life  of  Comenius,  and  notes. 
Edited  by  Julius  Beeger  and  Franz  Zoubek. 

6.  Dr.  Th.  Lion.     Bibliothek  padagogischer  Clas- 
siker.      Langensalza,  1875. — Contains  German  tran- 
slations of  the  pedagogical  works  of  Comenius. 

7.  Johann  Amos  Comenius.     Grosse    Unterichts- 
lehre  (Didacttca   Magna),  mit  einer    Einleitung   von 
Gustav  Adolf  Linder.     Wien,  1877. 

The   Three   Great  Pedagogical   \Vorks   of 
Comenius 


Comenius  was  a  very  prolific  writer,  being  the 
author  of  more  than  eighty  publications,  written  in 
Slavic  (Czechic),  Latin,  and  German  ;  but  he  owes 
his  fame  to  the  three  following  works. 

I.  DIDACTICA  MAGNA,  SEU  OMNES  OMXIA  DOCENDI 
ARTIFICIUM. 

This  great  work  was  begun  in  1627,  \vhile  Come- 
nius was  living  in  exile  at  Sloupna.  It  was  finished 
in  1632,  but  remained  in  manuscript  till  1849,  when 
it  was  published  in  the  original  language  (Czechic). 

A  translation  of  a  part  of  the  Didactica  Magna,  un- 
der the  title  of  Prodromus  Pansophiat,  was  published 
in  London  in  1639,  through  the  mediation  of  Samuel 
Hartlib,  by  whose  influence  Parliament  invited  Co- 
menius to  England  to  organize  a  reform  in  public 
education.  Buisson,  in  his  Dictionnaire  de  Pedagogic, 
pronounces  the  Didactica  Magna  "  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  treatises  that  have  been  written  on  the 
science  of  education  ". 


91 

II.  JANUA  LINGUARUM  RESERATA 
This  work,  published  at  Lissa  in  1631,  was  sug- 
gested by  a  book  bearing  the  same  title,  written  by 
an  -Irish  Jesuit  named  Batty,  who  was  connected  with 
the  Jesuit  College  at  Salamanca.  It  was  translated, 
.as  Comenius  himself  tells  us,  into  Greek,  Bohemian, 
Polish,  Swedish,  Belgian,  English,  French,  Spanish, 
Italian,  Hungarian,  Turkish,  Arabic,  Persian,  and 
•even  Mongolic.  The  general  plan  of  the  Janua  may 
be  seen  from  the  following  quotation  :  "  Comenius 
believed  that  the  knowledge  of  words  should  serve 
at  the  same  time  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  things. 
He  therefore  resolved  to  classify  in  methodical  order 
all  created  things,  with  their  Latin  names,  and  a 
translation,  in  parallel  columns  ;  and  to  make  of  this 
general  vocabulary  a  universal  repertory  of  informa- 
tion, where  the  pupil  might  at  the  same  time  learn 
Latin  and  general  science.  He  collected  eight 
thousand  words,  with  which  he  constructed  one 
thousand  sentences,  and  these  he  distributed  into  one 
hundred  chapters." 

HII/  ORBIS  SENSUALIUM  PICTUS,  hoc  est,  omnium  funda- 
mentalium  in  mini-do  rerum,  ft  in  vita  actionum, 
pictura  et  no  men-datura. 

The  first  edition  of  this  famous  book  was  published 
at  Nuremberg  in  1657;  and  soon  after  a  translation 
was  made  into  English  by  Charles  Hoole.  The  last 
English  edition  appeared  in  1777,  and  this  was  re- 
printed in  America  in  1812.  A  fine  reprint  of  the 
English  edition  of  1727,  with  reproduction  of  the  151 
•copper-cut  illustrations  of  the  original  edition  of 


92  APPENDIX 

1658,  was  published  by  C.  W.  Bardeen,  Syracuse,  in 
1887. 

This  was  the  first  illustrated  school-book,  and  was 
the  first  attempt  at  what  now  passes  under  the  name 
of  "  object  lessons". 

"  The  'Orbis  '  was,  in  substance,  the  same  as  the 
i  Janua',  though  abbreviated,  but  it  had  this  distinc- 
tive feature,  that  each  subject  was  illustrated  by  a 
small  engraving,  in  which  everything  named  in  the 
letter  press  below  was  marked  with  a  number,  and 
its  name  was  found  connected  with  the  same  num- 
ber in  the  text." — Quick. 

Educational  Principles  of  Comenius 

(Arranged  from  Paroz's  Historic  Universelle  de   la  Pedagogic.) 

i.  Instruction  is  easy  in  proportion  as  it  follows 
the  course  of  nature. 

z.  Instruction  ought  to  be  progressive  and  adapted 
to  the  growing  vigor  of  the  intellectual  faculties. 

3.  It   is  a  fundamental   error  to  begin   instruction' 
with  languages  and  terminate  it  with  things — math- 
ematics, natural  history,  etc.;  for  things  are  the  sub- 
stance, the  body,  while  words  are  the  accident,  the 
dress.     These  two  portions  of  knowledge  should  be 
united,  but  we  should  begin  with  things,  which  are 
the  objects  of  thought  and  of  speech. 

4.  It  is  also  an  error  to  begin  the  study  of  language 
with  grammar.     We  should  first  present  the  subject 
matter  in  an  author  or  a  well-arranged  vocabulary. 
The  form,  /.  e.  the  grammar,  does  not  come  till  after- 
wards. 


COMENIUS  93 

5.  We  should  first  exercise  the  senses  (perception), 
then   the  memory,  then    the  intelligence,  and  lastly 
the  judgment  (reasoning).     For  science  begins  with 
the  observation;  the  impressions  received  are  then 
imprinted   upon  the  memory  and    the  imagination; 
the  intelligence  next  seizes  upon  the  notions  held  in 
store  in  the  memory  and  from  them  deduces  general 
ideas;  finally  the  reason  draws  conclusions  from  the 
things  sufficiently  known    and  co-ordinated  in    the 
intelligence. 

6.  It   is  not  sufficient,  merely  to  make  the   pupil 
comprehend;  he  should  also  learn  to  express  and  to 
apply  what  he  has  comprehended. 

7.  It  is  not  the  shadow  of  things  which  impresses 
the  senses  and  the  imagination,  but  the  things  them- 
selves.    It  is  then  by  a  real  intuition  that  instruction 
should    begin,    and    not  by  a   verbal  description    of 
things. 

8.  By  observation,  the    pupil  should  first  gain    a 
general  notion  of  an  object,  and  should  then  observe 
each  part  by  itself  and  in  its  relation  to  the  whole. 

9.  Talent  is  developed  by  exercise.     We  learn    to 
write  by  writing,  to  sing  by  singing,  etc. 

10.  The  study  of  languages  ought  to  commence 
with  the  mother  tongue.     A  language  is  learned  bet- 
ter by  use,  by  the  ear,  by  writing,  etc.,  than  by  rules, 
which  should  follow  use  in  order  to  give  it  greater 
exactness. 


-THE  SCHOOL  HULLETIX  PUBLICATIONS.- 


History  of  Modern  Education, 

The  History  of  Modern  Education.  An  account  of  Educational  Opinion 
and  Practice  from  the  Revival  of  Learn- 
ing to  the  Present  Decade.  By  SAMUEL 
G.  WILLIAMS,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  the 
Science  and  Art  of  Teaching  in  Cornell 
University.  Cloth,  16mo,  pp.  499.  With 
37  Portraits.  $1.50. 

This  is  a  revised  and  enlarged  edition 
of  what  was  upon  its  first  appearance 
altogether  the  fullest  and  most  com- 
plete history  of  modern  education  now 
available.  It  is  the  only  adequate  prep- 
aration for  examinations,  and  a  neces- 
sary part  of  every  teacher's  working 
library. 

The  titles  of  the  chapters  will  give  some  idea  of  its  comprehensiveness. 
Those  in  italics  appear  for  the  first  time  in  this  revised  edition. 

Introductory.  Valuable  contributions  to  pedagogy  from  ancient  days.  I. 
Preliminaries  of  modern  education.  II.  The  Renaissance,  and  some  inter- 
esting phases  of  education  in  the  16th  century.  III.  Educational  opinions 
of  the  16th  century.  IV.  Distinguished  teachers  of  the  16th  century, 
Melanehthon,  Sturm,  Trotzendorf,  Neander,  Ascham,  Mulcaster,  the  Jesu- 
its. V.  Some  characteristics  of  education  in  the  17th  century.  VI.  Princi- 
ples of  the  educational  reformers.  VII.  The  17th  century  reformers.  VIII. 
Female  education  and  Fenelon.  IX.  The  Oratory  of  Jesus.  Beginnings  of 
American  education.  X.  Characteristics  of  education  in  the  18th  century. 
XI.  Important  educational  treatises  of  the  18th  century:  Rollin,  Rousseau, 
Kant.  XII.  Basedow  and  the  Philanthropise  experiment.  XIII.  Pesta- 
lozzi  and  his  work.  XIV.  General  review  of  education  in  the  18th  century, 
XV.  Educational  characteristics  of  the  19th  century.  XVI.  Extension  of 
popular  education.  XVII.  Froebel  and  the  Idndergarten.  XVIII.  Professional 
training  of  teachers,  and  school  supervision.  XIX.  Manual  and  industrial 
training.  XX.  Improvements  in  methods  of  instruction.  XXI.  Discussion  of 
relative  value  of  studies. 

There  are  also  added  an  Analytic  Appendix,  for  review ;  the  Syllabus 
on  the  History  of  Education  prepared  by  the  Department  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion for  the  training  classes  of  the  State  of  New  York,  with  references  by 
page  to  this  volume  ;  and  an  Index  of  13  double  column  pages,  much  fuller 
than  in  the  first  edition, 

The  Critic  calls  it,  "  sensible  in  its  views,  and  correct  and  clear  in  style." 
The  American  Journal  of  Education  says:  "It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that 
for  all  ordinary  purposes  Prof.  Williams's  book  is  in  itself  a  much  more  val- 
uable pedagogical  library  than  could  be  formed  with  it  omitted." 

C.  W.   BARDEEN,   Publisher,   Syracuse,  •  N.  Y. 


-777 A*  SCHOOL  P.I'LLKTIX  ITHL/CATlOXti.- 


Helps  in  the  History  of  Education 


By   ROBERT    HENRY    QTICK. 

420.     Manilla  50  cts.:    Cloth 


(fional    litfortner 

16n»o,   pi 
$1.00. 

"With  the  suggestion  that,  xtmly 
should  be  made  interesting. "  wrote  ( Jen- 
eral  Morgan,  when  principal  of  the 
Rhode  Island  State  Normal  School. 
-'we  most,  heartily  agree.  How  this 
m:i\  be  done,  the  attentive  reader  will 
l>e  helped  in  learning  by  the  study  of 
this  admirable  book."  The  American 
Jbrary  Association  recogni/e  its  liter- 
ary value  by  including  our  edition  of  it 
in  their  list  published  by  the  Bureau 
of  Education  of  books  that  every  pub- 
lic library  should  own.  An  entirely  new  illustrated  edit  ion  has  now  been 
issued,  with  autobiography,  chapter  on  Froebel,  21  portraits,  and  13  illus- 
trations. 

2.  Lectures  on   the  History  of  Education   in    Prussia  and  England. 
By  JAMES  DONALDSON.     Cloth,  12m o,  pp.  185.    $1.00. 

3.  A  Short  History  of  Education.    By  Chancellor  W.  H.  PAYNE.    Cloth, 
16mo,  pp.  105.    50  cts. 

This  is  a  reprint  of  Oscar  Browning's  article  in  the  Encyclopedia  Bri- 
tannica,  with  notes  on  Comenius  and  Bibliography. 

4.  Sketches  from  the  History  of  Education.    By  W.   N.   HAILMANN. 
Paper,  8vo,  pp.  39.    20  cts. 

This  treats  particularly  of  Luther,  Bacon,  Pestalozzi,  Girard,  Diester- 
weg,  and  Froebel. 

5.  History  of  the  Philosophy  of  Pedagogics.    By  Prof.   C.   W.   BEN- 
NETT.    Leatherette,  16mo,  pp.  43.     50  cts. 

(>.     Elementary    Greek   Education.     By    FRED    H.    LANE.     Leatherette, 
16mo.  pp.  85.     50  cts. 

7.     History  of  the  Burgh  ,sV7/W.v  of  Scotland.     By  JAMES  GRANT.   Cloth, 
Kvo,  pp.  571.    $3.00.     These  were  the  original  free  schools  of  the  world. 

<s.     The  History  of  the  High  School  of  Edinburgh,     I»y  WILLIAM  STE- 
VEN.    Cloth,  12mo,  pp.  610.     $2.00. 

!>.     History  of  the  Schools  of  Syracuse,  X.  Y.     By  EDWARD  SMITH.    Cloth, 
8vo.  gilt  top,  pp.  347.     With  85  portraits  and  30  pictures  of  buildings.    $3.00. 
10.     Teachers' Institutes,  Past  and  Present.    By  JAMES  M.  MILNE.   Paper, 
8vo,  pp.  22.     25  cts. 

it.    History  of  Educational  Journalism  in  the  State  of  New  York.    By 
C.  W.   BARDEEN.     Paper.  8vo,  pp.  45.    40  cts. 

12.    Educational  Publications  in  Italy.    By    PIERO   BARBERA.     Paper, 
8vo,  pp.  14.     15  cts.     Written  for  the  Columbian  Exposition. 

C.  W.  BARDKEN,  Publisher,  Syracuse,  X.  Y. 


-THE  SCHOOL  BULLETIN  PUBLICATIONS.- 


Meiklejohn's  Life  of  Andrew  Bell. 

An  old  Educational  Reformer,  Dr. 
Andrew  Bell.  By  J.  M.  D.  MEIKLE- 
JOHN, professor  of  the  theory,  history, 
and  practice  of  education  in  the  uni- 
versity of  St.  Andrews.  Cloth,  16mo, 
pp.  182.  $1.00. 

Teachers  of  this  generation  can 
hardly  realize  what  a  power  the  moni- 
torial system  was  in  the  history  of  the 
first  third  of  this  century.  It  was  the 
subject  most  debated  when  teachers 
met  together  and  in  the  educational 
journals  of  the  time.  It  was  supposed 
to  have  revolutionized  teaching,  and 
in  this  country  as  well  as  in  England  and  elsewhere  its  influence  was  enor- 
mous. Dr.  Andrew  Bell,  its  founder  is  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey,  his 
tablet  being  one  of  the  first  that  meets  the  eye  of  the  visitor.  He  left  a 
fortune  of  a  million  dollars  to  educational  uses,  and  founded  the  chairs  of 
education  in  the  universities  of  Edinburgh  and  St.  Andrews. 

Hitherto  his  biography  could  be  obtained  only  in  the  three  enormous 
volumes  of  2,000  pages  by  Robert  Southey;  but  Dr.  Meiklejohn,  who  occu- 
pies at  St.  Andrews  the  chair  Dr.  Bell  founded,  has  written  this  memoir, 
which  is  as  sprightly  and  interesting  as  the  big  compilation  of  Southey's  is 
dreary  and  dull.  He  tells  of  Dr.  Bell's  college  life,  of  his  going  to  Virginia 
to  be  a  tutor;  of  his  shipwreck  on  his  return  voyage;  of  the  duel  he  fought, 
when,  being  short-sighted  and  excitable,  he  fired  at  the  seconds  instead  of 
his  opponent;  of  his  being  offered  $2,500  to  vote  for  one  candidate  and  im- 
mediately voting  for  the  other;  of  his  journey  to  India,  where  he  was  put 
in  charge  of  an  orphan  school  for  boys;  of  his  difficulty  in  finding  teach- 
ers, and  his  discovery  of  the  plan  of  mutual  instruction;  of  the  enormous 
success  that  this  plan  met  with,  first  in  India,  and  afterward  in  Great 
Britain  and  throughout  the  world. 

Incidentally  Prof.  Meiklejohn  tells  much  of  the  state  of  education  at 
the  time  Dr.  Bell  began  to  introduce  his  system,  when  in  Ireland  for  in- 
stance, the  boy  who  had  written  the  best  copy  was  ordered  by  the  master  to 
pull  the  hair  of  the  boy  who  had  written  the  worst,  and  so  to  do  until  they 
arrived  at  their  seats  in  the  school  again.  It  was  one  of  Dr.  Bell's  corre- 
spondents who  speaks  of  the  death  of  a  schoolmaster  in  Swabia  who  had 
superintended  a  seminary  51  years  with  severity;  had  given  91 1,500 callings, 
124,000  floggings,  209,000  custodies,  136,000  tips  with  the  ruler,  10,200  boxes  on 
the  ear,  22,700  tasks  by  heart,  700  stands  upon  peas,  600  kneels  on  a  sharp 
edge,  500  foolscaps,  1,700  holds  of  rods. 

In  short  the  volume  is  a  vivacious  and  interesting  history  of  the  time, 
as  well  as  the  best  biography  of  one  of  England's  most  eminent  teachers. 

C.  W.  BARDEEN,  Publisher,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


-THE  SCHOOL  BUL7.ETJN  PrTtLTCA  TIONS. 


THOMAS  ARNOLD. 


Biographies  of  Great  Teachers. 

1.  A  Memoir  of  Roger  Ascham.  by  SAMUEL  JOHNSON,  LL.D. ;  and  selec- 

tions from  the  Life  of  Thomas  Arnold, 
by  Dean  STANLEY.  Edited,  with  In- 
troductions and  Notes  by  JAMES  S.  CAR- 
LISLE. 16mo,  pp.  2;V2.  Manilla,  50 cts.; 
Cloth,  $1.00. 

Besides  the  biography  of  Ascham  in 
full  this  volume  contains  selections 
from  klThe  Schoolmaster",  with  fac- 
simile of  the  ancient  title-page.  We 
also  publish  Ascham 's  Complete  Works* 
in  four  handsome  volumes  at  $5.00. 

From  Stanley's  "Life  of  Arnold'' 
those  chapters  have  been  taken  which 
refer  to  his  work  as  a  teacher,  and  arer 
published  without  change.  Thus  the 
book  gives  in  full  compass  and  at  a  low  price  all  that  is  most  important  in. 
the  lives  of  these  two  great  teachers. 

"  No  better  reading  could  be  selected  for  the  teacher,  none  more  stimu- 
lating, none  more  softening,  than  the  lives  of  these  two  men,  so  conspicuous 
for  their  achievement  as  teachers."—  The  Evangelist. 

2.  John  Amos  Comenius,  Bishop  of  the  Moravians;  his  Life  and  Educa* 
tioncd  Works.    By  S.  S.  LAURIE.    16mo,  pp.  232.    Manilla,  50  cts. ;  Cloth,  $1 . 

«?.  An  Old  Educational  Reformer.  Dr.  Andreiv  Bett.  By  J.  M.  D.  MEIKLV- 
JOHN.  Cloth,  16mo,  pp.  182.  $1.00. 

Dr.  Bell  was  the  founder  of  the  Monitorial  System  that  swept  over  Eng- 
land and  America  in  the  early  part  of  this  century,  and  was  at  that  time  the 
most  famous  teacher  in  the  world.  Prof.  Meikle  John  has  made  his  biography 
as  entertaining  as  it  is  important  in  the  history  of  education. 

U.  Pestalozzi :  his  Aim  and  Work.  By  Baron  DEGUIMPS.  Translated  by 
MARGARET  CUTHBERTSON  CROMBIE.  Cloth,  12mo,  pp.  336.  $1.50. 

5.  Autobiography  of  Frederich  Frcebel.     Translated  and  annotated  by 
EMILIE  MICHAELIS  and  H.  KEATLEY  MOORE.    Cloth,  12mo,  pp.  183.    $1.50. 

"  He  writes  so  simply  and  confidentially  that  no  one  can  fail  to  under' 
stand  everything  in  this  new  translation.  It  would  be  of  great  benefit  to 
American  youth  for  fathers  and  mothers  to  read  this  book  for  themselves, 
instead  of  leaving  it  entirely  to  professional  teachers."— New  York  Herald. 

6.  The  Educational  Labors  of  Henry  Barnard.    By  WILL  S.  MONROE, 
Leatherette,  16mo,  pp.  35.    50  cts. 

7.  Essays  on  Educational  Reformers.    By  R.  H.  QUICK.    Cloth,  16mo,  pp. 
331.    $1.50. 

Its  vivacious  style  makes  it  the  most  interesting  of  educational  histories. 
We  publish  separately  at  15  cts.  each  these  chapters  :  I.  The  Jesuits,  II.  Co 
menius,  III.  Locke,  IV.  Rousseau,  V.  Basedow,  VI.  Jacotot,  VII.  PestalozzL 

C.  W.  BARDEEX,  Publisher,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


. 


FOURTEEN  DAY  USE 

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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


